Camille E. Filardo, Ed.D at University of Southern California
 
 

Coughlin, C. C., &  Erekson, O.H.  (1984).  Contributions to intercollegiate athletic programs: Further evidence. Social Science Quarterly,    194-202.
 

    Several studies have examined the empirical relationship between athletic success and charitable contributions to institutions of higher education.   This article examines the correlation between alumni giving and winning athletic programs.  Past literature states that the trend of giving falls on the heels of winning athletic programs, noting that "alumni contributions to an institution's academic endowment are positively related to intercollegiate athletic success and exposure" (p194).  Coughlin and Erekson used this hypothesis and furthered the research by examining factors that affect athletic contributions.  First, the authors researched the correlation of a winning athletic program with financial contributions, and secondly, the authors examined the potential key factors likely to affect contributions. Coughlin and Erekson agree that winning athletic programs "increase potential contributions; however, the athletic department must find methods to insure the contributions are made" (p 195).  The following statements summarize the foundations necessary for the to enhancement of financial donations:

1. Positive relationship between winning percentage and athletic contributions.
2. Population- conflicting interests college vs. professional sports
3. Mandatory contributions- i.e., seating preference
4. Positive relationship between attendance and contributions

There are National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) limitations on expenditures by athletic departments.  For example, the NCAA limits the number of, and the stipend payable to, scholarship athletes and the size of coaching staffs.  It is also possible university administrators might limit overall athletic expenditures in order to prevent an imbalance between academics and athletics (198-199).

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Cullen, F.T., Latessa, E.J., & Byrne, J.P. (1990).  Scandals and reform in collegiate athletics: implications from a national survey of head football coaches.  Journal of Higher Education,  61 (1),   50-64.
 

    "Cheating in the area of recruitment and payoffs by 'boosters' to star players seem ubiquitous."    Acknowledging that abuses remain ever present in collegiate athletics, the authors address the flagrant rule violations as well as drug abuse that exist and the attempt to maintain academic integrity via "Proposition 48."  According to the authors, reforms are occurring, yet there is concern about who is overseeing the progress and who is regulating it.  The authors believe that head coaches are the ones most responsible for insisting "that a clean program run or alternatively for tolerating if not encouraging corrupt practices" (p.51).    This study surveyed 192 Division I Head Football Coaches.  The survey studied four areas: (1) coaches' views on the prevalence of, causes of and proposed strategies to control violations of NCAA regulations; (2) coaches' views on the prevalence, causes and control of drug abuse among college athletes; (3) coaches' views on academic reforms within collegiate athletics; and (4) coaches' views on reforming NCAA regulations.  The authors discovered that cheating exists.  Most coaches "choose to look the other way, and that the source of cheating was structural." In other words, according to the coaches surveyed, the cheating was encouraged via "pressure to win."
 

    Violations of NCAA Regulations
Interestingly, a large population of coaches support the NCAA sanctions that occur in response to current abuses.  They favored the actions being imposed on the coaching staff as a direct result of any abuses.  Most agreed that 'players who take payoffs should be suspended from competition (p 56).  In conclusion, the majority supported tougher regulations concerning abuses.
 

    Drug Abuse in Collegiate Athletics
First and foremost, the majority agreed that abuse of drugs such as cocaine, steroids, and alcohol are a prevalent problem.  Secondly, "coaches attributed drug abuse primarily to peer pressure and to the general existence of drugs in society and on college campuses."Finally, coaches agreed that random drug testing was a good deterrent and that it should commanded media attention as well.
 

    Academic Problems and Reforms
All respondents favored the new 'Proposition 48' rule, which determines freshmen's athletic eligibility.  This is based on passing the SAT with a minimal score of 700 in combination with a minimal grade point average of a 2.0.  It was suggested that student-athletes perform poorly in school 'due to lack of basic skills to do academic work' (p 60).  It was also suggested that graduation rates would increase should the NCAA  allow institutions to offer extended financial support to include summer scholarships.
 

    Reforming NCAA Regulations
Most importantly, all coaches concurred that the NCAA regulations need to be simplified.  The coaches insisted that the rules needed to reflect common sense.  Due to the language and the complexity of the rules, coaches often chose to ignore the rules for the simple fact of the difficulty one encounters when they try to interpret their meaning.  The process of interpretation is often difficult as well as time consuming.  Coaches are looking for quick, easy, practical bylaws.

    Overall:
The goal of increasing the intergrity of collegiate athletics seems to have the support of the majority of NCAA Division I Head Football Coaches.  There is acknowledgement that abuses do occur and that there are current measures in place to decrease their existence.  However, most NCAA Division I Head Football Coaches are in favor of stiffer, more clearly stated bylaws that would in their opinions, help increase academic integrity and decrease drug abuses and booster interference.
 

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Fink, J.S., Fink-Silvers, J.  (1999).  Give and ye shall receive -- What every athletic administrator should know about the advantages of charitable giving through charitable remainder trusts.  Journal of Legal Aspects of Sport,  9 (1),  34-39.

    With the understanding that collegiate athletics is an expensive component of higher education, the athletic department's administrative has had to take on the responsibility of creatively funding its deficit.  As stated, 'the average annual expenditures for Division IA intercollegiate athletics well exceed $17.5 million and 56% of those intercollegiate athletic programs lose money'  (p 35).  As a result, Fink and Fink-Silvers (1999) suggest that athletic departments become well versed in the varieties and benefits of Charitable Remainder Trusts (CRT's).  This article not only demonstrates the advantages of attaining CRT's but also illustrates how an athletic department can benefit from a CRT.  Literature agrees that the ' CRT is among the most flexible and attractive charitable giving and estate planning strategies available to individuals,' explaining that both the donor and benefactor benefit (p 35).  'A CRT is a legal arrangement in which an individual transfers assets to a trust'  (p 36).

    Understanding there are a variety of different trusts as well as CRT's, one can see that the advantages of a CRT are (a) immediate income tax deduction, (b) diversification of assets, (c) immediate capital gains savings and a subsequent increase in lifetime income, (d) a reduction in estate taxes, and (e) immediate acknowledgement of the charitable contribution' (p 37).    There are some disadvantages as well.  The disadvantages include the inability to reverse a CRT and the cost of maintenance, to name a few. In summary, a CRT can benefit a donor as well as a beneficiary.  It avoids taxes for the donor and creates a large donation for a beneficiary.  A CRT could possibly be used to set up an endowed scholarship program in a donor's name, thus assisting an athletic department with lowering its expenses

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Grimes, P. W. and Chressanthis, G. A.  (1994).   Alumni contributions to academics:   The role of intercollegiate sports and NCAA sanctions.   American Journal of Economics and Sociology,   53 (1),  27-40.

    Grimes and Chressanthis write that winning collegiate athletic programs are directly related to charitable contributions donated to institution.  In addition, Grimes and Chressanthis state that the NCAA sanctions might be partly responsible for lowering the potential donations that could possibly be made to academics.  The main point of contention is unveiling the relationship between athletic success and academic donations for the university at large.  Grimes and Chressanthis agree that there are two specific camps of thought regarding this topic.  Many believe that athletic contributions 'drain' academic contributions while others argue that successful athletic departments provide universities with a 'brand name.'   In order to sort these opinions, the authors first examined studies that characterize contributions made to athletic departments.
    One study concluded that athletic success included 'attendance, post season play, and winning percentage, and that these are significant determinants of monetary contributions to a school's athletics program' (p 28).   Other studies provided a direct correlation between athletic success and annual fund contributions especially among alumni from private institutions, schools with religious affiliations, and middle-sized public universities (Booker Klastorian 1981, p 28).   However, the above studies failed to 'distinguish between athletic contributions and academic contributions.'   The authors insinuated different deterrents.  For example, they examined the NCAA Bylaws and their effects on alumni donations.  They found that the NCAA Bylaws restrict the financial assistance available to student athletes.  By restricting financial support to student-athletes, Grimes and Chressanthis believe that cheating increases.  In other words, institutions must entice student athletes to attend their college, and, therefore, they are 'tempted to offer benefits beyond the imposed limits to secure an athlete's service because all NCAA member school are restricted in the amount of financial aid they may provide an individual athlete' (p 32).  To discourage this practice, the NCAA reprimands these actions with hefty fines or even goes as far as 'banning teams from appearing on television or in post season play' (p 32).  Knowing the ramifications of misappropriated funds, as well as being fearful of infracting rules and costing institutions television appearances, some alumni may be inhibited to give.  This maybe a direct result to NCAA sanctions.  Despite deterrents, it is important for a university to realize that a ' sport program is more than a series of social events, and can yield external monetary benefits for academics.'
 

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Hancock, L.  (1988) The power of the purse, Newsweek, 125 (20),  58.

    Yale journalism student, Pat Collins, wrote a small article in The Light and Truth periodical, exposing a mishandled 20 million donation by Lee Bass.  As a result of Collin's article, the Intercollegiate Studies Institute, a conservative organization which is estimated to be worth $3.5 million dollars and which publishes The Light and Truth, exposed this story to Mr. Bass.  The Intercollegiate Studies Institute Inc. is interested in purging 'the pervasive forces of multiculturalism'  from the nations campuses).  Their ultimate attempt is to rid universities of liberal courses and related topics.  'ISI distributes the stories to select alumni, urging them to fight back.  The grads, in turn, withhold their annual donations' (p 2).  As a result of ISI's interference with Yale's pledges, Yale lost at least $20 million dollars.  The ISI went as far as to fly to meet with Mr. Bass in Texas to convince him to withdraw his donation for the Western Civilization Program.  Yale returned his large donation.  ISI has also involved themselves with Stanford and other conservative institutions, wining court cases regarding hate speech.  Furthermore, ISI prides itself on forcing the dismissal of Converse College's Ellen Hall, first woman president.  ISI exploited her desire to increase cultural awareness.  It is important to understand, while considering this article, that the politics exist and that the unlimited financial support of outside influence can indeed cut an institutions fund-raising solicitations at the knees if there is a conflict of interest in opposition with the public.

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Kalita, S. M.  (1998, February 5).  Rutgers' new athletic director plans to tie marketing, academics, sports, Daily Targum.

    This article, though short in length, makes a poignant statement about the direction NCAA Division I institutions of higher education are making in hiring a former successful businessman as athletic directors.  This pertains to one who has the intention of reversing poor financial decisions with the claim of emphasizing the importance of education and academic integrity.  Academic integrity are the 'buzz words' that appeal to those involved in institutions of higher education.  Yet, at no point in the article did Mulcahy, the newly appointed athletic director and former business executive and bureaucrat, for Rutgers University, deplore a statement or plan regarding his academic interests in college athletics.  In fact, he referred to the fact that he will ' look to the guidance and advise of professors and deans once on the Banks' (p1).  This leads the reader to believe he has no intention of directing Rutgers Athletic Department in the area of academic excellence.  However, the article does expose his interest in business by stating that 'Marketing has been Mulcahy's forte, as he has been responsible for wooing popular athletic events such as the NCAA Final Four to the Meadowlands.'  The article further strengthens the argument that Mulcahy was hired to rectify Rutger's financial status by acknowledging the hope that 'he can similarly turn around its [Rutgers'] athletic program, which suffered through an 0-11 football season and losses of $31.5 million in the last decade'  (p.2).   The article concludes with the brief but convincing argument that 'his dedication to scholarship and integrity virtually sealed his appointment' (p.2).  Once again, an athletic director is hired to financially enhance a collegiate athletic departments' standing and should remain neutral in matters of academic commitments.
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Kuhn, J.  (1991).  Stewardship returns dividends; Building friends for your athletic department takes Personal efforts.  Coaching Volleyball, (Dec/Jan),  26.

    'Personalization' is the key word for Athletic Director Jo Kuhn.  In fact, Kuhn defines stewardship as 'the process of maintaining connection with the various constituencies which are of utmost importance' (p 26).  The personalized contact is what Kuhn attributes to the successful financial support of her athletic department.  Examples of how Kuhn personalizes her contact with donors are as follows: (1) student-athlete hand written thank you notes at Christmas time;  (2) hand written congratulation notes to donors for any accomplishments they have encountered, i.e., faculty publishing a book; (3) positive attitude promoted by a special department phone number, i.e., TWU-BEST; (4) brief hand written thank you notes on behalf of the athletic department to professors who cooperate with the academic progress reports for student athletes; and (5) interaction of coaches and administration with donors.  Kuhn's emphasizes the importance of valuing a donor as a human with a spirit rather than a checkbook with money.  'Athletics, however, is about people and you must make the extra effort and give the extra energy needed to see that there is time to know one another, to work with one another, and to care about one another.  Only then will your athletic program be able to make the best use of the groups whose support is necessary for your success' (p.26).

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Leslie, L. L. (1988).  Enhancing a college's fund-raising ability, Eric Digest  ED 308799 HE 022930

    Leslie examined six areas of concern that he believes highly influence college fund-raising abilities.  These areas include the following: (1) exemplary performers, (2) what works and what does not work in fundraising, (3) whether successful athletic programs enhance support, (4) how tax laws affect voluntary support, (5) new ideas in nonprofit research, and (6) what is in store for the future.  The author's findings are clear and concise.  Leslie states that institutions of higher education must first 'build fund-raising traditions through tried and true strategies.'  Secondly, there must be a consistent approach to soliciting and regaining voluntary support.  Next, Leslie states that successful athletic programs as well as positive visual publicity enhances one's ability to secure charitable donations.  He also believes that the 1982 tax law will create changes and possibly lessen the amount of people donating to universities.  As for nonprofit research, the author states that governmental spending can 'crowd out' potential donors, yet this trend may not affect social services.  And lastly, Leslie states that 'much remains to be learned about donor behavior' (p 4).  There has been an attempt by the Council for Advancement of Education (CASE) to build a database including all higher institutions of learning donor transactions because universities reveal that they do not know much about their own donors.  Because higher education institutions 'know almost nothing about their donors,' Leslie believes that ' a national donor database must be built and maintained' (p 4).

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Nicklin, J.L. (1996).  Perpetual fundraising?  More colleges start new campaigns on the  heels of those just completed.  The Chronicle of Higher Education,  June 21,  237-239.

    What strategy should collegiate fundraisers employ?  Do they take a risk by seeking one large donation or do they remain conservative by retaining small repetitive donors?   This is the major obstacle facing institutions of higher education when it comes to financial campaign planning.  It seems that today, universities are continually asking the public to support their financial campaign, even running the risk of becoming 'Campaign Dependent.'  This risk, according to G. David Gearheart, a senior vice president with Grenzebach, Glier & Associates, a fundraising/consulting company, claims that if 'you are perpetually running campaigns, you run the risk of the general public's feeling you're greedy-that there's never any closure to it' (p 237).  These campaigns are usually defined as 'intense efforts to raise a certain amount of money for endowments, buildings, and programs from private sources within a specified period of time' (p 237).   If overused, these campaigns seem to loose effect.  Realizing this, Loessin of Case Western Reserve University is trying to alter his approach as Vice President for Development and Alumni Affairs, by allowing a reasonable amount of time between his major drives.  Regardless of the appropriateness of the time frame designated for each capital campaign, a college always needs to 'win over the skeptics.'  The University of California at Berkeley chose to win over its skeptics by establishing an annual fund program and increasing its events for alumni.  In addition, Cal hired approximately 20 fundraisers, and creatively converted limited working space into working offices.  Nicklin also noted, that aside from winning over skeptics, fundraisers need to pay attention to analyzing their needs prior to establishing their new campaign by developing 'breathing room' between fundraisers.  And lastly, Nicklin warns institutions not to get wrapped up in competing with other institutions' campaign goals, forcing their own to increase despite previous plans, simply in the spirit of competition.  This practice often diverts the campaign leader from his original needs and planned goals.

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McDiarmid, J. (1995).  The new generation of fundraisers.  Fund Raising Management, July,   46-48.

    Reflecting upon McDiarmid's thirty years of fundraising, he insists that experience is not what makes a good fundraiser.   He provides the example of a fundraiser he was involved with to demonstrates his point. 'The Minnesota Campaign showed, and as I have witnessed in other settings, experience is not the key success ingredient.'  He attributes successful fundraising to 'inventive' attitudes among staff members.  His recipe for successful fundraising is 'a combination of skills in team building, strategy formulation and communications techniques that lead to creative and productive actions' (p 46).  McDiarmid describes an effective fundraiser as one who is 'conceptually agile and able to turn concepts into realities' (p 47).  Fully aware of the early 1990's apathetic phone-athon approach to fundraising, McDiarmid emphasizes the unique skills required of an effective fundraiser.  He notes that a successful fundraiser needs to be disciplined, well versed, involved, and creative.  He insists that a fundraiser possess excellent communication skills including writing, ignoring the suggestion that fundraisers are 'clerks with handfuls of prospect cards' (p 48).  For McDiarmid, fundraising is a combination of respectable research, communication, organization, discipline, and detail oriented skills that involve a heavy amount of involvement to accomplish appropriate goals.

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Pennington, A. (1996).  Fundraising and sports.  Fundraising Management, (Feb.)  20-25.

    'Planning a sports fundraising event is an all encompassing challenge, and although it is similar to planning a traditional fundraiser, there are certain details and specific pitfalls an event planner should be aware of' (p 22).  Pennington, Sports Marketing Expert, explains the unique bond between charities and sports and also outlines important steps one needs to take in hopes of creating a successful sports related fundraiser.  Pennington's scheme involves the marriage of professional athletes, a notable charity, and a major corporation.  These three conglomerates, working together, make the perfect foundation for a successful fundraising event.  Be warned however, that (1) athlete's must participate, (2) one should not schedule the event with another large conflicting event, (3) one must create a committee that is willing to participate, and (4) one must be willing to spend money with the idea of creating a pleasant environment.  Once the event and participants have been determined, one must maximize his or her efforts by employing excellent planning techniques.  These techniques include (1) setting a financial goal, (2) trouble shooting problems by creating a list of possible disasters and solutions, (3) including athletes and participants early in planning the event, (4) creating an active board, and (5) focusing on creating a quality event that people would like to return to annually.  Following these brief suggestions, Pennington assures the reader that such an athletic fundraising event will be successful.

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Verner, M. E.  (1996).  Women as financial donors and philanthropists:  A way to enhance intercollegiate athletics opportunities.  Women In Sport & Physical Activity Journal,  5 (1),  27-49.
 

    The culture of philanthropy is changing.  According to Verner (1996), women are changing the culture of philanthropy and the way in which it is being conducted for a variety of reasons.   Verner sites Nichols' (1990) findings to reinforce the idea that women are taking on a more important role regarding donations.  Nichols (1990, p.87) found that

Women make up 53 percent of the work force
Women constitute 27 percent of business owners
Women are starting up new businesses at three times the rate of men
More women than men are graduating from college
Women are increasingly moving into higher-paying professional and management careers)
Many higher-earning women are single or married without children
Nichols, 1990, p 87

In colleges, women account for 55.2 percent of enrollment, a share it is predicted will grow to 56.7 percent by 2002.  By the turn of the century, 63 percent of the new entrants to the work force are expected to be female, increasing the number of women with the paycheck power to make donations.  The number of female contributions should also increase as the 74 million baby boomers mature.  The windfall of wealth this generation inherits from its parents will be mostly at the disposal of today's 35 to 46 year old women, who have had fewer children than their mothers and are statistically likely to outlive their husbands.  What their gifts -- and especially their wills- look like will influence the shape of American philanthropy in the 21st century.
T.S. p 70