Ecofeminist Theory in Sustainable Development: Moving Toward a New Environmental Paradigm

Brian J. English
Ph.D., University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
E-mail: rainbowreefwarrior@yahoo.com

"People have to be able to work together if they are to realize the shared destiny and to preserve a habitable environment for generations to come."           Albert Bandura, 1995

Environmental Education and Development

Bandura's words epitomize the spirit of environmental education and its challenges of community cooperation, trans-generational communication and sustainable development. The success of these challenges depends on the ability to pass on knowledge about the environment to future generations in order for them to better understand how to maintain a sustainable relationship with nature. In this era of globalization and neo-liberalist policies, maintaining a sustainable relationship with the environment needs to be examined not just from an ecological perspective, but also from political and social angles. Since environmental issues are often connected to social and political concerns, a theoretical framework that encompasses a wider ideology may facilitate an understanding of the interconnectedness of ecological issues. Deep ecology, institutional environmentalism, green political theory, and possibly other schools of thought forge connections between environmental, political and social concerns. Ecofeminism emerges as an alternative theory for framing the issues and answers of sustainable development. An ecofeminist perspective more fully describes the connections between environmental degradation and the social inequalities that plague the poverty-stricken victims of pollution, urbanization, deforestation, and other by-products of over-development. Finally, it is important to include ecofeminist theory in a discussion of sustainable development, because "in a patriarchal society, failure to recognize the interests, experience and needs of women must mean that the value and experience of men will determine the direction of green politics by default" (Mellor, 1997, p.128).

Ecofeminism

Ecofeminism is a liberationist philosophy that combines emancipatory elements of feminism with the environmental concerns of ecology. It has become a movement "that sees the connection between the exploitation and degradation of the natural world and the subordination and oppression of women" (Mellor, 1997, p.1). Ecofeminists view women as victims of the same patriarchal tyranny that dominates nature (Castells, 1997). Karen Warren (1996) identifies eight connections between feminism and the environment. Although it is not necessary to discuss all eight connections, understanding several of Warren's connections is essential in relating non-formal education at a local level to the fostering of environmentally proactive behavior.

Historical Connections Between Feminism and Ecology

The first essential connection draws causal links from a historical perspective. The argument is that at some point in human history a change occurred that lead to the concurrent male domination of females and nature. Some scholars argue the change happened with the onset of the scientific revolution (Merchant, 1980), while others (Spretnak, Reisler as cited in Warren, 1996) might argue it occurred much earlier. Salleh (1988) stresses the relevance of including the historical connection between feminism and ecology in a discussion of sustainable development: "Ecofeminism is a recent development in feminist thought which argues that the current global environmental crisis is a predictable outcome of patriarchal culture" (p. 138).

If this is true, then it logically follows that dismantling domineering patriarchal behaviors will allow development to take new directions that consider the health and welfare of the environment in the future. The magnitude of this challenge becomes apparent if domineering patriarchal behaviors are tied to capitalism. In discussing feminism and ecology from a socialist perspective, Mellor (1997) uses the term "capitalist patriarchy" to explain productive and reproductive labor. Gonzalez (1997) implies the current global environmental problem may be the result of the free market notions of capitalism. Gonzalez suggests that capitalism may be an obstacle to global sustainable development. Therefore, the dismantling of domineering patriarchal behaviors may include rethinking liberal approaches to development based on free-market capitalism.

Empirical and Experiential Connections Between Feminism and Ecology

The next essential connection that Warren includes is the empirical and experiential tie between women and nature. She claims documentation of this tie describes "the very real, felt, lived connections between the dominations of women and nature." Documentation of such connections should "motivate the need for feminist critical analysis of environmental concerns" (p. xiii).

Although there is ample evidence of how environmental issues directly affect women, a specific example from the fisherfolk in the Philippines conceptualizes the cause and effect relationships of social and political factors that tend to single-out those that are already the most marginalized. Pomeroy (1987) investigated the roles of women and children in a small, typical Philippine fishing community. He found that in Matalom, Leyte, Philippines, women and children participated in both non-income generating activities and income generating activities. The majority of fishermen's wives' income-generating activities were related to the fishing industry. These activities included marketing and processing of fish. Although Pomeroy does not discuss the effects of environmental degradation specifically, he reasons that because women play a major role in the production and marketing activities, they should be involved in the decision-making process for sustainable development of the local fishing industry.

It is important to realize the role of women and children in the fishing industry when analyzing causal relationships between environmental degradation and women's issues. In this type of small-scale fishing industry, a strong causal relationship begins with human impact on coral reefs. Degradation of coral reefs results in smaller bio-diversity in the marine environment consequently narrowing the food chain. As certain prey becomes scarce; so do predators. An unhealthy coral reef is not able to attract and sustain plentiful populations of fish and other sea life. This translates into fewer fish to catch, fewer to process and fewer to market. Although lowered incomes and unemployment affect both men and women, it would seem that such sociological problems harm women more. As jobs become scarce, women and children are the first to be pushed out of the market. Some may leave rural communities for jobs in already overcrowded cities. The lack of skills, inadequate education or limitations of only speaking a provincial language are all likely to make it difficult for some to find jobs in the cities; thus, young women and even children are forced into prostitution. Less money often means less food in developing countries. Women and children are the most likely to suffer from lack of nutrition, which is often linked to high infant mortality, disease and problems during pregnancy. Since these are issues linked to any women's movement, the connection between environmental degradation in general and feminist concerns is lucid.

Warren's empirical and experiential connection between the domination of women and nature deem women's participation necessary for the success of community-based environmental education or resource management programs. The United Nations Chronicle supports this position by declaring that "women are among those who suffer most from environmental degradation and also among the most significant actors in the conservation and safeguarding of natural resources" (sic) (p. 47). Because the conditions under which impoverished women must live are so contingent on healthy marine eco-systems, it is important that women play a decisive role in community environmental education. This type of participation is a step closer to empowerment.

Political Connections Between Feminism and Ecology

The last essential connection that Warren discusses is the political connection between the environmentalist movement and the women's movement. Warren reasons, "ecofeminist and other feminist concerns for women and the environment have always grown out of pressing political and practical concerns" (Warren, 1996, p. xvii). Warren's idea that ecological and feminist movements have related political concerns emphasizes the need for women to participate in the decision-making process of environmental resource management. Political activism and political decisions about the environment should be based on accurate and adequate knowledge about the environment. Many women bring valuable knowledge to share in the non-formal education arena. The benefits of women's participation in the non-formal education process may best be realized in qualifying the knowledge they can share with the community. Pomeroy (1987) reasons that since the active roles of women and children are a fundamental element for the success of agriculture and rural development programs, they should also be a fundamental element in the success of development programs in fishing communities. The inference here can easily be extrapolated to include the necessity for women and children's active participation in community-based environmental programs. This inclusion is the next step toward empowerment. However, for the ecofeminist, empowerment should not exclusively refer to the empowerment of women. On the contrary, it should refer to the empowerment of the community to effectively manage common resources and accept the responsibility of stewardship for the non-human world.

The historical, political and experiential connections realized in ecofeminist thought justify its use as a lens for viewing the challenges of effectively managing environmental resources to maintain sustainable development. The historical aspect of ecofeminism postulates that a history of class domination has reproduced values and behaviors responsible for human degradation of environmental resources. The empirical and experiential connections emphasize the advantages of using a feminist perspective to analyze environmental issues and to plan proactive approaches to environmental resource management. The establishment of political connections recognizes that the power of collective effort is essential to minimize differences of class representation in the decision-making process. This "flattening out" of the hierarchy fuels the empowerment process.

A New Environmental Paradigm

Environmental education is emancipatory if it leads to the creation of new values, especially new environmental values that become the cornerstones of a community-wide environmental ethic. The passing on of environmental values from one generation to another begins the process of structuring a new social paradigm. Within the theoretical framework of ecofeminism, environmentally based, non-formal education can change the way people think about their relationship with nature. Lester Milbrath (1989) aptly argues for the need to promote new social paradigms that focus on sustainability and to reconsider the way society dominates the environment. Some of Milbrath's ideas are radical in that they require a massive restructuring of political institutions and society. For a discussion on non-formal education and environmental resource management, it is not necessary to debate the feasibility or plausibility of radical change. Still, some of Milbrath's other points are relevant and can be addressed by environmentally based, non-formal education programs. These points include a shift toward placing a higher valuation on nature, carefully planning action to avoid risks and limiting growth.

Through education and consciousness raising, non-formal education can help citizens realize the dependence humans have on the environment. This could create a more holistic perspective that tightens the relationship between humans and nature. The ultimate goal here, however, is to encourage behavior that favors environmental protection over economic growth. Economic growth is not necessarily harmful, but environmental protection should be a priority. To maintain a balance, careful planning is needed which should consider all short-term and long-term risks. Education is an important element in the planning process because knowledge allows communities to make informed decisions about their lives. A crucial element of informed planning is the ability to realize the limits of growth. Thus, one major goal of community-based environmental programs is to determine what types of growth result in environmental degradation.

Ecofeminism can also be a philosophical lens to view community-based environmental education as a vehicle for developing more ecologically appropriate attitudes and behaviors. Ecofeminism is a lens to correct the myopic view of development so prevalent in this era of globalization and neo-liberalism. From this perspective, ecofeminism envisions community empowerment as an ethical approach to sustainable development.

References

Bandura, Albert. (1995). "Exercise of Personal and Collective Efficacy in Changing Societies." In Albert Bandura (Ed.), Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies (pp. 1-45). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Castells, Manuel. (1997). The Power of Identity. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Inc.

Gonazalez, George A. "Conclusion: Obstacles to Achieving Sustainability." In Sheldon Kamieniecki, George A Gonzalez and Robert O. Vos (Eds.), Flashpoints in Environmental Policymaking. Albany, New York: SUNY.

Mellor, Mary. (1997). Feminism and Ecology. New York: New York University Press.

Merchant, Carolyn. (1980). The Death of Nature. Harper and Row.

Milbrath, Lester. (1989). Envisioning a Sustainable Society. Learning Our Way Out. Albany: SUNY Press.

Pomeroy, Robert S. (1987). "The Role of Women and Children in Small Scale Fishing Households: A Case Study in Matalom, Leyte, Philippines." Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. v.15, 1987, pp.353-360.

Salleh, Ariel K. (1988). "Epistemology and the Metaphors of Production: An Ecofeminist Reading of Critical theory." Studies in the Humanities. 5(2), pp. 130-39.

UN Chronicle. (1995). "Empowering Women: More Education, Better Health Care, Less Poverty." United Nations Chronicle. v.32 (June '95) p.46-47. New York: United Nations Department of Public Information.

Warren, Karen. (1996). "Ecological Feminist Philosophies: An Overview of the Issues." In Karen Warren (Ed.), Ecological Feminist Philosophies. Bloomington, ID: Indiana University Press.

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