Lived School Experiences That Encouraged One Person to Become a Creative Writer: Study II of VI

Dan Lukiv
M.Ed., English and Creative Writing
McNaughton Centre, Quesnel, BC, Canada
E-mail: lukivdan@shaw.ca

Introduction

I conducted conversational interviews (Madjidi, n.d.) with a successful Canadian poet. To date, he has had several poetry collections published by major Canadian houses and, as would be expected, many poems published in literary journals. He was awarded but declined a Canada Arts Council grant to write and recite poetry. He lives and works in a northern Canadian community, and he has obtained a formal university education at the bachelor level. I call him Thomas to protect his anonymity, and I interviewed him about what, if any, lived school experiences had encouraged him to become a creative writer.

I speak of school experiences in terms of elementary and high school as opposed to college and university. I speak of the creative writer as one who engages in what I call creative writing: the entertaining, thought-provoking expression of emotions, ideas, and thoughts (Lukiv, 2002b). Indeed, school experiences had existed that had encouraged the participant to become a creative writer, and the exploratory nature of this study (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997; Patton, 1987; and van Manen, 1990) sought to describe, in the hermeneutic phenomenological sense (Myers, 1997), themes that emerged from those experiences (van Manen, 1990, 2000h).

In my original study (2002b), I reviewed a variety of curriculum guides, Web sites, teachers' handbooks, how-to writing books, and other sources that contain direction for students and teachers of creative writing. Traditionally, creative writing stands as a relevant topic in the world of Language Arts, and much direction exists in the literature for creative writing students and teachers (Lukiv, 2002b).

In the literature review of the next section, I consider my original study (2002b) and what school experiences encouraged its participant, Arthur (pseudonym). That study stands as the first-born hermeneutic phenomenological study in existence, that I am aware of, that explores my research question: What, if any, experiences in school encouraged one person to become an adult creative writer? The study defines itself under the umbrella of qualitative, subjectivist research based on a single research question (Lukiv, 2002b; see also Cohen & Manion, 1994; McMillan & Schumacher, 1997; and van Manen, 1990, 2000c).

Literature Review

Through a rigorous hermeneutic phenomenological process that addressed issues of validity (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997) or trustworthiness (Guba & Lincoln, 1982; see also Siegle, n.d.c), and of researcher bias (van Manen, 1990), Lived School Experiences That Encouraged One Person to Become a Creative Writer (Lukiv, 2002b) defined eight themes: 1) events in school that promoted the joy and wonder of silent reading of poetry and fiction; 2) events that promoted the joy and wonder of listening to poetry and fiction fluently read aloud and of listening to songs; 3) events that promoted the wonder of uninterrupted language experiences; 4) events that promoted the intrigue and wonder of flights of imagination fuelled by the connotative and imagistic value of words; 5) events that promoted the excitement of verbally punning and joking and of informing others about what he had read and learned; 6) events that promoted the joy and exhilarating freedom of writing down his thoughts and feelings based on poetry and fiction read and having those thoughts and feelings valued by teachers; 7) events that promoted the exhilarating freedom of choice of reading material; and 8) events that promoted the satisfaction and excitement of receiving sound direction about how to write well from compassionate teachers encouraged Arthur to become a creative writer.

Why do these themes, for teachers of creative writing, define a good starting place? Well, we may not require all our students to become creative writers, but some students, given the right environment, like a marigold seed given the appropriate combinations of soil, nutrients, water, and sunshine, might germinate into a poet or fiction writer, into a writer of literary stature such as Irving Layton, Morley Callahan, Earl Birney, or W. O. Mitchell. Some students might germinate into great dramatists. On the other hand, some students might germinate into poets, fiction writers, and dramatists of humble ability. That is fine too. If we, as educators, want to think about what that right environment might be, the themes from my original study create a starting place.

That starting place does not offer generalizability (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997). The themes do not stand as tools of prediction (1997). The sample size of n = 1 creates that assurance (Patton, 1987). In terms of population external validity (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997), the study cannot be generalized to other individuals (1997). Simply put, Arthur, like anybody, is unique in terms of what psychological, sociological, biological, spiritual, educational, physical, genetic, economic, and other forces drove him (Zunker, 1998); however, the trustworthiness (Guba & Lincoln, 1982; see, also, Siegle, n.d.c) or validity (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997) of the study ranks high due to thorough participant review (collaborative) sessions (van Manen, 2000b; and McLean, Myers, Smillie, & Vaillancourt, 1997), to peer debriefing (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997), and to bracketing (Lukiv, 2003a; and van Manen, 1990, 2000d, 2000e, 2000g) out bias.

Some qualitative researchers consider internal validity--credibility (Siegle, n.d.c)--an issue mostly at the interpretation stage (Galen, 1997/1998); however, the hermeneutic phenomenological researcher addresses internal validity, as the previous paragraph shows, much sooner. Also, the participative nature of the study, as in some action research, certainly aids credibility (Arminio, 2002; Dick, 1999; and Siegle, n.d.c). Therefore, the themes of my original study define a valid starting place.

The literature review of my original study (2002b) thoroughly described the British Columbia Ministry of Education's decision to include creative writing as a formal element of Language Arts programs for the primary, intermediate, and high school grades (The Ministry, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c). The review also thoroughly described, as mentioned, a wealth of direction for teachers of creative writing. I invite the reader to consider the original study for the complete reference list (2002b).

Methodology

Van Manen (1990) helps us understand that hermeneutic phenomenological research as an intensive writing activity (van Manen, 2000f, 2000i) helps the researcher explore the unique phenomena of lived experience (see, also, Vandenberg, 1992). It is a method of understanding the person (van Manen, 1990). As a writer, and teacher, this methodology fits my interest in creative writing and in what people think and feel (Siegle, n.d.b), but, in particular, this methodology fits my interest in what lived experiences in school have encouraged people to become creative writers (Barnett, 2002; and Chalip, Marshall, Thomas, & White, 1998). I could map my research logic as follows: the topic (creative writing ) led to the research question, which led to a paradigm (qualitative research), which led to a methodology (hermeneutic phenomenology), which led to the study of the lived experiences of one creative writer. Not surprisingly, then, I employed purposeful sampling (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997) as a method to choose an information-rich participant (Barnett, 2002).

Sampling

I studied Thomas' experiences. In view of hermeneutic phenomenology's focus on the individual, on his or her lived experiences, purposeful sampling of one participant seemed sensible and appropriate. In addition, I considered Bogdan and Bilkan's (1992) comments that single-participant studies are more manageable than those with multiple-participants.

My goal, of course, was to employ a systematic approach, a systematic methodology, to study Thomas' lived experiences.

A Systematic Approach

Hermeneutic phenomenology focuses on the individual (van Manen, 1990), through the systematic (see, e.g., Baldursson, 2000a; Clark, 2000a; Cull-Wilby, 2000; Ford, 2000; Hagedorn, 2000; James, 2000; Maeda-Fujita, 2000; Montgomery-Whicher, 2000; and Winning, 2000) and the explicit; however, much phenomenological so-called research [Footnote-1] does not, from my point of view (Lukiv, 2003a, 2003d, 2003e), reveal its methodology enough to merit the use of the word systematic (see, e.g., these phenomenological, so-called, research papers: Altrows, 2000; Baldursson, 2000b; Bergum, 2000; Bottorff, 2000; Brooks, 2000; Burton, 2000; Clark, 2000b; Connolly, 2000; Davies, 2000; Davis, 2000; Devine, 2000; Evans, 2000; Fahlman, 2000; Field, 2000; Flickinger, 2000; Godkin, 2000; and Hawley, 2000). That said, my research was systematic. It used specific modes of questioning for data collection (McLean et al., 1997), of analyzing, and of interpreting. In this section I discuss each of those modes, along with my systematic use of bracketing (Lukiv, 2003a), which was one of my means for bias control. I thereby define much of my methodology. As for explicitness, hermeneutic phenomenology is explicit through its listing of discovered themes (van Manen, 1990).

Modes of questioning, analyzing, and interpreting, according to hermeneutic phenomenological tradition, must protect the researcher's objectivity and subjectivity. By objectivity, I refer to the researcher's remaining true to the nature of the participant's lived experience (van Manen, 1990) and true to the solitary research question. By subjectivity, I refer to the researcher's remaining true to the meanings of the data (1990).

Questioning techniques. My interviews with Thomas required depth interviewing and probes (Patton, 1987). To help me stay focused on the research question, I kept an interview guide (1987) at hand. Really, it contained direction that helped the participant address the reality of his experiences and avoid what some call participant-folklore (Borgatti, 1996b). The foundation of that guide was a question: "Could you give me an example of an experience in school that encouraged you to become a creative writer in your adult years?" I included probes, to be used if necessary, to draw out the experience in concrete terms of who, what, where, when, why, and how (Patton, 1987). Other questions established Thomas' past and present engagement as a writer (1987), the answers of which I present in language that protects his anonymity.

Sensory questions in the interview guide were to be used, if necessary, to probe into what the participant had seen, heard, tasted, smelled, and touched (Patton, 1987). Feeling questions in the Carl Rogerian tradition (Egan, 1998) probed in order to discern Thomas' emotions (Patton, 1987). For example, a Rogerian-style question would be: "Do you mean that you felt (_______) about that experience?" I wanted an empathic understanding of Thomas' emotional reaction to his experiences (Siegle, n.d.b).

I attempted to keep my questions singular, not confusing (Patton, 1987). I wanted the participant to feel at ease, relaxedly reflective, and not to worry about a volley of upcoming questions. I wanted the participant to feel at ease for other reasons. I felt impelled to establish a professional, humanistic--ethical (Cohen & Manion, 1994; McMillan & Schumacher, 1997; Patton, 1987; and van Manen, 1990)--forum for neutrality and rapport.

Rapport grew from my attitude that Thomas' experiences and reactions to them were paramount (Patton, 1987). Neutrality asserted itself through my lack of judgment, no matter what Thomas said (1987). My avoidance of using leading questions (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997), and my bracketing, which I describe later, helped me maintain neutrality (Patton, 1987) as an interviewer, paving the way for unbiased analysis.

Analysis of data. Analysis immediately after data collection--i.e., after each interview (see, e.g., Galen, 1997/1998; and Lesson: Qualitative Research, 1998)--enabled me to find themes in the data, whereas interpretation, which I discuss later, enabled me to define themes as essential or incidental. Analysis grew, in part, from my study of transcribed interview data and field notes (Patton, 1987; and Text Analysis, 1998), and from contact summaries (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The analysis also grew from memos that I had written to myself (1994), ongoing participant review, and synthesis of the data (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997). Themes emerged. Van Manen (1990) refers to participant review--some call this respondent debriefing or respondent confirmability (Arminio, 2002)--as an ongoing dialogue between the researcher and participant, designed to confirm or reject the researcher's findings. Participant review relates to qualitative research, or more specifically to hermeneutic phenomenology, as reliability relates to quantitative research.

The analysis also included peer debriefing (McMillan and Schumacher, 1997). My peer debriefer [Footnote 2] ensured rigor (Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olson, & Spiers, 2002) along the way of the study by helping me to not overlook themes in the data. Although some researchers prefer other terms in place of rigor, one being goodness (see, e.g., Arminio, 2002), I like the sense of exactness that "rigor" brings with it, an exactness that my peer debriefer helped me attain.

He helped me in other ways too. He searched for examples of bias in my analyses, in my interpretations, and in my questions as found in the transcribed data. I found his "bias control," if you do not mind that term, invaluable in the sense that although he found no statements of bias, his "presense," or participation, in the study made me constantly aware that I must at all times bracket out my bias.

Bracketing out bias. Many experiences in school had encouraged me to become a creative writer. Because these experiences define highlights in my education (Lukiv, 2002a), they could influence me to ask biased questions. Through my use of free imaginative variation (van Manen, 1990), I expressed those experiences in terms of one essential, broad theme: Events in school that promoted my looking at the world through "different" eyes, through other points of view; that promoted the wonder of creativity; that promoted the joy of my ideas being appreciated; that promoted the excitement of entertaining, or emotionally moving, others; that promoted the excitement of focused thinking; and that promoted the joy of understanding how to write had encouraged me to become an adult creative writer (Lukiv, 2002a). That said, my peer debriefer, who had access to this broad theme, and I looked for biases in "places" that spoke of me rather than of Thomas. None were found.

Another sort of bracketing reduced bias by my addressing possibilities I inadvertently came up with through general reading, conversations with colleagues, and deductive, inductive, and analogy-type reasoning (Kline, 1967) that suggested that certain events in school should encourage students to take up creative writing. In my original study, I refer to this as bracketing in possibilities (2002b; and 2003a). I made these explicit in my audibility file (Davis, 1997), as reminders for myself and as flags of note for my peer debriefer to watch for in my interview questions, analyses and interpretations.

Interpretation of data. Patton (1987) says the researcher interprets qualitative data by searching for patterns and relationships. In this interpretive sense, phenomenology provides possible insights, through the wonder of exploration (van Manen, 2000f), through the search for essential themes in lived experience (van Manen, 1990). This search occurs after the researcher has gathered the data. Interpreting what data supports what theme remains the focus of hermeneutic phenomenology.

I was able, in the most unbiased manner possible, to focus on interpreting the data at hand due to bracketing, participant review, peer debriefing, and objective and subjective analyzing of data. My goal remained to truly "listen" to the data, to fully immerse my critical eye (van Manen, 2000a) in the lived experiences. In short, while analysis crudely suggests what themes might exist, interpretation determines what essential themes indeed exist. I found that one essential theme existed, through a participant review process of interpretation that, referred to already, van Manen calls free imaginative variation (1990). This process steps far away from the methodology of researchers who consider interpretation their sole, uncollaborative responsibility (Galen, 1997/1998). Incidental themes, then, were collaboratively discarded.

In a sense, discarding incidental themes is hermeneutic phenomenology's method of dealing with what some researchers call rival hypotheses (Miles & Huberman, 1994), negative or discrepant results (Project Methodology, n.d.), or disconfirming evidence (Lesson: Qualitative Research, 1998). Incidental themes are discarded only if the participant, through the free imaginative variation process, labels them as nonessential to the phenomena. This process ensures that the essential themes exist as the valid and reliable interpretation of the participant's lived experience.

The term interpretation, or hermeneutics, however, could still make one wonder about validity. Although my use of bracketing, free imaginative variation, peer debriefing, participant review, objective and subjective analyzing of data, field notes (in a field journal), contact summaries, and memos addressed validity issues, a few other considerations remain.

Other considerations. McMillan and Schumacher (1997) discuss validity in terms of the degree that the researcher's discovered phenomenon match reality, i.e., the degree that the themes I discovered matched the realities of Thomas' lived experience (see, also, Siegle, n.d.a). To that end, I needed to conduct quality interviews. Hence, I conducted the conversational interviews in the comfort and familiarity of a place of Thomas' choosing (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997). He chose his patio. Further, I spoke in his language as an indigenous-insider (Banks, 1998), as a fellow poet.

Thomas' language is an important element of this text, which contains word for word quotes from interviews that I tape recorded (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997). I kept a field journal to record my comments about the trustworthiness of each interview (1997). The field journal also detailed my thoughts, reactions, and questions related to the entire research process (1997). An audibility file, however, on a far grander scale, contains more than these thoughts, reactions, and questions; such a file contains a comprehensively recorded trail of decisions (1997). These were available to my peer debriefer. He provided frequent checks for rigor, frequent pro-active checks, designed to address threats to validity along the way (Morse et al., 2002).

This pro-active approach addresses triangulation of a sort (Myers, 1997). If a variety of informants in action research addresses the spirit of triangulation (Arminio, 2002; and Dick, 1999), then agreement between participant, researcher, and peer debriefer in a phenomenological study addresses the same spirit. Furthermore, if participant review can be considered a sort of survey, albeit, one to one, then researcher "interview [and analysis and interpretation along with that sort of] survey can be used to provide convergent validity information" (Pogson, Bott, Ramakrishnan, & Levy, 2002, p. 2).

Ethics [Footnote 3]

Prior to the collection of data, I wrote a letter of introduction and information and an Informed Consent Form that were provided to the respondent (Research, n.d.). The letter of information detailed potential benefits and risks to the respondent; sampling criteria; what the respondent would be asked to do; who would have access to the respondent's responses; how anonymity would be addressed; how confidentiality would be addressed (Ethics, 1998); and how long data would be stored and when and how it would be destroyed.

Conclusions

Few events in school encouraged Thomas to become a creative writer, as opposed to the many that encouraged Arthur (Lukiv, 2002b). From the study, I discovered one essential theme for Thomas, whereas I discovered eight for Arthur. Granted, Thomas found frustration in the study's not holistically addressing sociological, emotional, economic, psychological, spiritual, genetic, physical and other variables inside and outside schoolthat could influence or encourage people to pursue a path, like creative writing, in life; however, he did agree that the one essential theme from this study rings true.

What Thomas Did Not Say

I analyzed the interview data and found seven themes. My peer debriefer found them unbiased products of my analysis. Thomas, through a preliminary participant review, considered them valid in terms of the data; however, through a more thorough participant review session, using free imaginative variation as an interpretive tool, Thomas did not say those themes were all essential. On the contrary, he found six incidental, leaving only one essential, which he modified, or honed, over participant review sessions.

In view of his discovery that little in elementary and high school had encouraged him to take up creative writing later in life, I was not surprised, during participant review, that he fully agreed with Birney (1966) who says school can discourage some potential creative writers. In some cases they feel forced, Birney says, to drop out of high school to learn elsewhere the art and craft of creative writing. Another study could explore events that discourage students from taking up writing seriously. This study, however, explored the opposite, and as I said, six incidental themes emerged from the data.

For example, consider teachers who expressly appreciated Thomas' efforts to write encouraged him to become a creative writer (Incidental Theme One). This theme is not essential because Thomas feels that it did not matter much what people thought about his writing. He was going to write whether or not people appreciated his efforts. Incidental Theme Two, which says opportunities to hear his own written words spoken aloud encouraged him to become a creative writer, is not essential because although he enjoyed hearing his own words spoken aloud, he did not need them to be.

Likewise, Incidental Theme Three, exposure to great literature encouraged Thomas to become a creative writer, is not essential. Thomas would have found great literature to read if none had been presented at school. He had access to great literature at home, and through that exposure he would have found more and more and more. Incidental Theme Four states: Opportunities to write, under most circumstances, even as a punishment, encouraged Thomas to become a creative writer. This is not essential because he found his own opportunities to write without looking for them in school. The irony for Thomas, however, was that writing as a punishment was in reality a reward; he loved to write!

Incidental themes two, four, five, and six use the word opportunities. For example, Incidental Theme Five: Opportunities to show off his writing ability to peers encouraged Thomas to become a creative writer. This theme is not essential because as much fun as showing off his talent to his peers was, Thomas did not require peer approval of his writing. Incidental Theme Six, Opportunities to express himself freely through the use of literary techniques of his choice encouraged Thomas to become a creative writer, is also not essential because although he deeply enjoyed expressing himself freely through his choice of literary techniques, he did not require these opportunities at school. He made his own opportunities outside of school.

The Theme

Originally, in the preliminary participant review session, I presented a thematic statement that eventually became Essential Theme One. Through repeated participant review sessions, and through free imaginative variation, the theme transformed into the following: One teacher (English 9, 10, and 11) who demanded the best of Thomas as a human being, and who more than valued, but loved, saw Thomas as a unique person, encouraged him to be the best that he could be, and since he had always, going back as far he can remember, wanted to write, that encouragement translated into his wanting to be the best writer that he could be. The fact that she was a high school English teacher is not relevant. If she had been a math teacher, he feels the effect would have been the same. Her interest in him, her demanding nature, and her more than just valuing Thomas as a person made such a deep impression on him that to this day his memories of her classes remain a source of joy and motivation.

 Thomas said, "I recently wrote her a letter....She's retired now....I felt...after forty years [I] really ought to say thanks." He referred to her as "a fabulous woman." He implicitly defined what he meant by fabulous in comments such as "she was able to...go beyond the visual. Look, I wasn't a pleasant child [laughs]. Let's not kid ourselves....I was always in trouble....I came close to jail two or three times. But she was not prepared to accept that." She had expected more. Thomas said, "I was being a smart ass one day, and I remember...she just glanced over and said you're better than that. And that was it. And it had nothing to do with writing. It just had to do with not being a smart ass."

Interestingly, Thomas had appreciated her demanding nature. "Let's call her a hard ass," he said. "She was very strict, [a] very...structured kind of person. And, oh!, brutally honest. Just absolutely brutally honest. And if you were being a doofus, she would tell you." Thomas appreciated her as someone who had valued him as an individual, but more than that, as someone who had loved, seen Thomas as a unique individual. "I was in love with this woman, not...from...a romantic perspective. She was so good at drawing out what I had, and [she] had a specific interest in me as a human being, not as a writer....She was more interested in me and my capacity to become...whatever."

Thomas loved to write, so her encouragement for him to be the best that he could be had translated into his wanting to be the best writer he could be. "I could write," he said. "I cannot recall a time when I could not write." He remembered that "when [he] got to school in grade one, [he] could read and write." Thomas told me "[writing] was fun." He had taken pride in his writing ability. His experiences in this English teacher's classes had taught him to not only live up to her expectations, but to live up to his own--which had been high indeed. They still are. To this day, Thomas is a perfectionist as a poet; his work does not enter the public domain until he feels completely sure it is worthy and substantial.

Are you surprised that this English teacher's valuing him as a worthy person had a positive influence on Thomas? Likely not. Selma Wassermann speaks about fine teachers who hold "deep respect for the dignity of the learner--for his individuality" (1987, p. 177). Such a fine teacher "communicates a genuine prizing and valuing of [each] student" (p. 177). In chapter twelve ("Lukiv's Principles of Instruction") of my The Master Teacher: A Collection, I, too, speak about fine teachers who value and respect students, and who honour their individuality (2001a). Also, fine teachers "maintain high expectations" (Kellough & Kellough, 1999, p. 45), encouraging each student to be the best that he [or she] can be.

Are you surprised that this English teacher expressed love for her students? Likely not. In the words of one experienced teacher, "Good teaching is not a matter of specific techniques or styles, plans or actions....Teaching is primarily a matter of love" (as quoted in Set the Pattern for You, 2002, p. 10; see, also, Jackson, 2003; and Worboys, 2003). Thomas still appreciates his English teacher's fine qualities as an educator. In fact, forty years after being her student, he wrote a letter to her, thanking her. Her response, a letter that he showed me, remains a precious reminder of the past.

Recommendations

Many English teachers know a great deal about the mechanics of the language. Professor Harlow, long-time head of the creative writing department at the University of British Columbia, and author of the critically-acclaimed novel Scann, made a comment to me in 1977 that helps me here: "Dan, those gyze in the English department understand language. They can dissect a sentence and explain all the grammar. I can't do that very well. But I know how to write" (Lukiv, 2001b). And he still knows how to write. But Language Arts teachers (English teachers included), who do not, or even who do (Professor Harlow, Arthur, Thomas, and myself included), write professionally, may find themselves wondering how to inspire at least one student to become a writer who reaches the literary heights of D. M. Thomas, Margaret Atwood, John Hodgins, Wole Soyinka, Thomas Akare, or Lindsey Collen, or, for that matter, who reaches modest literary heights.

This study gives Language Arts teachers direction. If I break the essential theme from this study into its parts, the direction looks like this (confirmed through participant review):

1. Demand, from a humanistic point of view, the best from students;
2. Value, love, see each student as sublimely unique;
3. Encourage students to be the best that they can be, no matter what their gifts or deficits are; (Notice the focus on demand in "1" and encourage in "3.")
4. Application of "1," "2," and "3" may encourage a student with creative writing ability or interest to become a poet, novelist, or dramatist;
5. Application of "1," "2," and "3" may encourage a student with any ability or interest to develop that ability or pursue that interest; and
6. Application of "1," "2," and "3" may encourage students to develop positive, lifelong-learning habits.

Following this list of six, I add direction from study one, based on interviews with Arthur (Lukiv, 2002b):

1. Provide opportunities for students to read poetry and fiction silently (see, e.g., Gordon-Hall, 2003);
2. Provide quality oral reading of poetry and fiction in class (see, e.g., Gordon-Hall, 2003);
3. Provide class singsongs;
4. Provide language experiences--movies, plays, novels, short story and poetry collections, scripts, and electronic media--uninterrupted by questions or other assignments;
5. Provide reasonable opportunities for students to daydream, to enjoy flights of imagination fuelled by the connotative and imagistic value of words;
6. Provide reasonable opportunities for students to pun and joke and verbally inform others about what they have learned;
7. Provide opportunities for students to write down their thoughts and feelings based on poetry and fiction read, and value those thoughts and feelings;
8. Provide opportunities for students to explore literature through freedom of choice; and
9. Compassionately provide sound direction about how to write well.

Arthur's themes and Thomas' themes differ, but then both writers differ. What motivates one person may only partially, or simply may not, motivate another (Stipek, 1998). My hermeneutic phenomenological methodology, however, does not provide me with the tools to integrate Arthur and Thomas' themes, or to create a covering theory. I leave this last sentence in the hands of further research.

Further Research

This study serves as the second in a series of six studies I plan to conduct. I call this series a new area of study. My literature reviews have located no other hermeneutic phenomenological investigations into what experiences in school have encouraged other people to become writers. Comments here and there such as I have found (Hodgins, 1993; and Polanyi, 2002) that mention events in school that encouraged or apparently encouraged some to become creative writers do exist, but no concentrated discussion based on in depth interviewing exists to my knowledge. I encourage researchers interested in my research question to consider a hermeneutic phenomenological approach.

As with the original study (2002b), I have found the research experience illuminating. It fills me with wonder. I have taught senior high school creative writing courses for six years, generally basing my teaching on my own experiences. But now, in addition to Arthur's (2002b), I have Thomas' experiences. I feel better equipped to teach creative writing in the future. I consider Thomas' theme alongside Arthur's eight themes and my own experiences in school that encouraged me to take up creative writing as a pastime and as a profession, and that prompts me to think about what might work for students, what might encourage some to take up creative writing. I have no rules here, simply direction (McEwan, n.d.).

Other researchers who add conclusions and recommendations through hermeneutic phenomenological study of my research question to the body of this study's conclusions and recommendations will add depth and breadth to that direction. Researchers could alter the research question to consider university as opposed to elementary school and high school experiences, or to consider fiction writers or dramatists as opposed to poets. Eventually, a body of knowledge, possibly even a "preponderance of evidence" (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997, p. 391), based on experiences from the continuum of education that poets, fiction writers, and dramatists have had could translate into direction in language arts and creative writing programs that better "germinates" future poets, fiction writers, and dramatists.

Perhaps the body of phenomenological knowledge from my six studies could crystallize into theoretical direction based on certain grounded theory principles (Dick, 2002). The grounded theory approach, founded in formal text, in 1967, by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss (The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research), swerved from traditional quantitative, hypothesis-testing methodology to a qualitative, inductive methodology grounded in data (Babchuk, 1996). Today Glaser and Strauss apparently disagree on the methodology of grounded theory, and many others have followed them into the arena of discussion/argument/how dare you say that (1996; Chalip et al., 1998; and Glaser, 2002). I liberally reference direction I follow in this section to give voice to the authors I choose to listen to, to provide authority beyond myself, and to provide the reader with a map to follow (Babchuk, 1996) should he or she wish to read these references. My goal: not to enter that arena I mentioned, but rather, to choose elements of grounded theory that may guide me from phenomenology to theory.

Phenomenological research is primarily concerned with the study of essence, the description of the essence of particular experiences, and not fundamentally concerned with creation of theory (Burch, 1989; and Burch, 1991). Therefore, I present this novel concept: Theory from Phenomenology. Grounded theory typically depends on more than data, such as interviews, but on phenomena (Davidson, 2002; Haig, 1995; Pandit, 1996; Kinach, 1995; and Myers, 1997). Logically, then, the themes could, although I won't say at this point they will, generate theoretical perspectives. I'm making tentative statements that editors of prestigious journals might not want to publish, but I'm not alone amongst researchers who would prefer to speak their minds, or speak tentatively, thoughtfully, than to concern themselves about whether their words meet strict guidelines of what gets into the journals (Barritt, 1992; and van Manen, 1992).

Some refer to the kind of data my phenomenological interviews generated as first-order (Pogson et al., 2002). Rather than think in terms of order, I prefer to think in terms of degrees of abstraction. The data to themes to theory refers to increased levels of abstraction. Mathematicians describe a process of integration (Nelson, 1998), which can take a one-dimensional formula to two dimensions and then to three (Volumes of Solids, 1999), thereby increasing the abstraction of the formula. For example, if with respect to r (radius of a circle) you integrate 8(pi [pronounced pie])r (a 1-dimensional formula), which is 4 times the circumference a of a circle, you get 4(pi)r² (a 2-dimentional formula), which is the surface area of a sphere, and if with respect to r you integrate 4(pi)r², you get 4/3(pi)r³ (a 3-dimensional formula), which is the volume of a sphere (1999). For my purposes, with respect to the original research question, the integration of data = themes; with respect to the new research question (What theoretical direction do these themes give to teachers of creative writing?), the integration of themes = theory.

I welcome researchers reading this integration approach who could offer suggestions or concerns (Barritt, 1992) about my stepping from phenomenology to grounded theory direction to contact me (lukivdan@hotmail.com). If grounded theory is an emergent methodology, as Dick says (2002), then my steps certainly are in the right ball park. I will need to develop my own style of constant comparison between themes that emerge from the phenomenological studies and theoretical statements that may emerge (2002) from the themes.

These themes, or as some grounded theory researchers say, categories or concepts or understanding (Calloway & Knapp, 1995; Glaser, 2002; and Introduction to Qualitative Tools, 1998), established through my six studies, through systematic hermeneutic phenomenological methodology, would become the data I use to construct theory, but construction would follow new systematic methodology, defining analysis and interpretation in the grounded theory arena (1998; and Kinach, 1995). Of course, categories in grounded theory arise through what many researchers call the comparative method (Glaser, 2002), whereas themes in my phenomenological studies arose through phenomenological analysis and interpretation (van Manen, 1990). Whichever qualitative methodology we consider as researchers, one goal of applying it is to bring us close to what we are studying. Grounded theory direction, then, could bring me close to what I would be trying to understand (State of the Art, 1998), namely the phenomenological data (themes) and theory that may lie implicitly therein (Lukiv, 2003c); additionally, the direction could help verify, make valid, the theory (State of the Art, 1998)--if one does emerge.

The themes of my six studies could parallel the concepts or categories of a grounded theory approach (Pandit, 1996). My goal: to group the themes through connections between them (1996), and integrate them (1996) into a covering theory. The quality of this inductive approach would naturally parallel the quality of theory produced (Borgatti, 1996b). I could discover a core category that all other themes relate to (1996b; and McCarthy, 2001). If the core category were considered the vertebrae, these other themes would be the ribs. Here, however, I sidestep grounded theory terminology such as open, axial, and selective coding (Babchuk, 1996; and Davidson, 2002).

I base that decision for sidestepping on the premise that codes may relate to single words or phrases (Dick, 2002) far more concrete than the phenomenological abstractions I call themes (van Manen, 1990). I have other reasons too. Logic suggests that Theory from Phenomenology should retain, as much as possible, "phenomenological" language. The language of hermeneutic phenomenology includes themes, but not open, axial, and selective coding. I prefer, at least for now, the language of grouping of themes, connections between themes, integration of themes, and covering theory. I say "at least for now" because the actual process of theory building from phenomenology may reveal to me a better language. At any rate, I may use the concept of a core category that all themes relate to as a useful theory-building spine.

The concept of memos, however, I will not sidestep. Pandit (1996) used memos in his grounded theory doctoral work to help him group and integrate what he called concepts and the broader categories, and to keep track of concepts, categories, questions, and possibilities. Actually, memos helped me analyze and interpret interview data in my phenomenological studies. Borgatti speaks about memos as a means to generate theoretical insight in grounded theorizing (1996b). Memos address what Pandit (1996) calls internal validity (credible establishment of relationships) and construct validity (enhanced through clear procedures of operation).

Whether or not I follow his example of using data analysis computer programs (Pandit, 1996) to help me compare and contrast my themes remains to be seen. But I will follow his example of comparing my theory to relevant literature, if any exists, once I establish theory. Some researchers encourage a review of literature during analysis and interpretation (Grounded Theory Research Design, n.d.); however, in my original study (2002b), I conducted a suspended literature review after my interpretation, to avoid biasing myself (van Manen, 1990). Pandit (1996; see, also, Davidson, 2002) worked similarly, reviewing relevant literature after the theory emerged.

This order fits the spirit of grounded theory, which does not allow "our theories...[to] drive our research" (Pogson et al., 2002, p. 6). Grounded theory researchers avoid forming a priori hypotheses (2002). Actually, its methodology began, in part, as a reaction against the preponderance of 1960s and pre-1960s education research that quantitatively tested hypothetical premises (Grounded theory, n.d.). Not surprisingly, then, I will avoid doing an extensive literature review related to my theory until it crystallizes. This will help me keep hypotheses and biases at bay. Curiously, however, just as I found no hermeneutic phenomenological studies that investigated my research question (2002b), I may find no literature that supports, contradicts, or extends theory I construct.

I should note here that Arthur's themes (2002b) are discussed in this 2003 study's literature review. A suspended literature review for my phenomenological studies no longer made sense once I had completed the original study because its results had become part of my bias-generating psyche. Hence, in this study of Thomas' experiences, the best that I could do was employ bracketing (Lukiv, 2003a), participant review, peer debriefing, "memoing", and field notes as vehicles to keep my biases at bay. I will employ the same in studies III, IV, V, and VI.

Participant review, including free imaginative variation, which verifies or appropriately alters a researcher's interpretation of data, addresses internal validity. Therefore, I might consider, at the stage of crystallizing my theory, conducting participant reviews with each of my six participants of the six studies, if possible, to see if the theory rings true for their experience. As in hermeneutic phenomenological research that values the researcher's analysis and interpretation along with the participants' verification (van Manen, 1990), my proposed methodology would value the same. This novel approach would place the theory generated at a high level of validity.

I enjoy this thought, because if I am going to spend great lengths of time conducting six studies and then work through the time-consuming method of a grounded theory approach (Pandit, 1996), I want to end up with high validity. Therefore, from the beginning of my research I have been aware of the need for what I call good process. For example, I have made sure my phenomenological studies have fit my original research question without "the question being made to fit the research method" (McCarthy, 1999, Three Stages of Developing the Research Topic, para. 1). I am matching this logic as I step beyond phenomenology. Really, I am attempting to join up the established, valid process of phenomenological research with valid grounded theory direction.

In the name of good process, here is my logic: 1) The topic of creative writing in school gave rise to my research question, which sent me on a research design (Daniel, 1996) exploration (I chose qualitative research), which sent me on a methodology exploration (I chose hermeneutic phenomenology), which introduced me to how to conduct valid research of my research question, research made valid in part because of participant review; and 2) Likewise, my topic of themes of events (phenomenological data) in school that have encouraged some people to become creative writers has given rise to my new research question of What theoretical direction do these themes give to teachers of creative writing?, which has sent me on a research design (Daniel, 1996) exploration (I have tentatively chosen qualitative research), which has sent me on a methodology exploration (I have tentatively chosen direction from grounded theory literature), which is teaching me how to construct valid theory (Pandit, 1996), the validity of which could be enhanced considerably through participant review.

Those readers familiar with grounded theory may notice that I have spoken about participant review, but not about saturation. "Saturation point is defined as that point in data collection/analysis when no new features related to the research question turn up in the most recently collected data" (Rintel, 2001). Not all researchers agree about the validity of saturation: "It seems so intense a process that I wonder," Rintel says, "if anyone has ever actually achieved saturation" (2001). In spite of such comments, many researchers treat saturation seriously, especially with regard to a core category (Glaser and Strauss: Developing Grounded Theory, n.d.). A variety of interviewees can provide a variety of data, thereby providing diverse aspects of the core category, enabling the researcher to deepen his or her insight (n.d.; see, also, Davidson, 2002).

If saturation is to grounded theory, then, I must add, verification and richness are to hermeneutic phenomenological research. Participant review--verification--ensures that the essential themes discovered truly describe the essence of the participant's lived experience (van Manen, 1990). Although applying the principles of saturation appears possible, the phenomenological researcher may simply stop interviewing once he or she sees that the data is fruitful. For example, my original study (2002b) was rich in its number of essential themes, namely eight, and this study, although only one essential theme emerged, has richness too. The breadth and depth of the single theme makes the study more than worthwhile in my mind. And verification gives the theme credibility.

Credibility with regard to a grounded covering theory that speaks about my six studies may also rank high through similar verification. As for richness: It will likely arise from the diversity of experiences of my information-rich (Patton, 1987) participants and their individuality (Stipek, 1998; and Zunker, 1998).

If my grounded theory approach, based on phenomenological data (themes), truly works, then I can present two modes of direction to teachers: 1) direction through a list of all themes from the six studies; and 2) theoretical direction (McEwan, n.d.). The list, as a checklist, could direct teachers to consider activities or ways of dealing with students that might encourage some to become creative writers (Lukiv, 2003b), based on the premise, analogy (Kline, 1967), that they have encouraged others. The theory could also direct teachers, although at a more abstract level, to consider activities or ways of dealing with students that might encourage some. I do not call this generalizing my results, my checklist and theory, but rather I call it extrapolation, based on the experiences of information-rich participants (Patton, 1987). I will discuss extrapolation in more length shortly.

In my phenomenological work, I have addressed validity issues in considerable detail. I realize that research that does not fully address validity issues invites criticism from, even rejection by, its readers. McKewan (n.d.) says, "If you read only the introduction and the conclusion to a research study, ignoring everything in between, you may as well not read it at all." I agree. A reader who does not evaluate a study's rigour and consider the researcher's arguments in favour of the study's validity seems, to me, odd.

I have read many studies that do not fully address validity issues, such as comparability between classes or students (see, e.g., Atkinson, 2003; and Suyter, 2003), survey validity (see, e.g., Haynes, 2003), confidentiality and anonymity and other ethical concerns (see, e.g., Haynes, 2003), researcher effects or bias control (see, e.g., Christiansen, 2003), standardization procedures for interviewing a variety of participants (see, e.g., Christiansen, 2003), questionnaire validity (see, e.g., Rauschenberger, 2003), and student effects on each other (see, e.g., Rauschenberger, 2003). These studies invite criticism. Therefore, where grounded theory structures guide me to locate theory in the phenomena, I will address credibility (internal validity), applicability (external validity), consistency (realiability), and confirmability (objectivity) (State of the Art, 1998; refers to Lincoln & Guba, 1985; see, also, Siegle, n.d.c), or I will formulate and apply other concepts of rigor to ensure the study's integrity (Morse et al., 2002).

I did not use Lincoln and Guba's (1985) terminology as explicit signposts in my phenomenological studies. I referred to trustworthiness (Guba & Lincoln, 1982; see, also, Siegle, n.d.c) with regard to validity. I could have, however, addressed credibility in terms of taped and transcribed interviews, participant review, free imaginative variation, bracketing, and peer debriefing; consistency (Siegle, n.d.c) in terms of participant review, free imaginative variation, bracketing, and peer debriefing; and confirmability (Siegle, n.d.c) in terms of audibility, field notes, contact summaries, memos, a field journal, bracketing, participant review, and peer debriefing (State of the Art, 1998). But the repetition seems cumbersome. Herein lies some of the trouble with qualitative researchers trying to straddle qualitative and quantitative language to addresses validity and reliability issues (Morse et al., 2002).

As for applicability as a validity issue--it really made no sense for my phenomenological studies because generalization was not the goal. Finding themes specific to the participants, however, was. Hence, rather than applicability, I prefer to use the term extrapolation (Patton, 1987). Extrapolation translates into direction from my studies for teachers of creative writing.

Extrapolation will arise again if grounded theory can provide me with a means to generate valid theory of use in the classroom, theory that will guide teachers who want to create classroom climates and events that may encourage some students to grow up to become creative writers. I do not speak of an if x, then y theory (Borgatti, 1996a), which relates to external validity, the validity of generalizing or applying the theory to creative writers in general. Rather, I am speaking of an if x, then perhaps y theory, especially if the theory rings true for all six participants. Such a theory would not describe independent and dependant variables, but it would describe at least a "sense of process" (1996a).

The best theory would address classroom climate and events from kindergarten to grade 12. My intent was to draw on elementary and high school events. I feel at home with my intent because I have taught students in grades 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, and 12, and I am familiar with the cognitive, emotional, and social make up of students in those grades (Zunker, 1998). Another researcher, however, might feel more at home with just elementary or just high school experiences, based on his or her past as a teacher. That researcher's audience might be just elementary or just high school teachers. This reminds me that skilled ethnographers of the same group of people might present different interviews and therefore different data and therefore different, although not contradictory, conclusions because different ethnographers might be researching for different audiences (Ethnography, 1998).

The experience of the researcher aside, good grounded theory has four fundamental requirements that seem excellent evaluative tools for Theory from Phenomenology. The theory should 1) "fit the phenomenon" [described by the themes that come out of the six studies]; 2) "be understandable" [understandable to teachers in general, but especially to Language Arts teachers]; 3) be "abstract enough to be [useful in] a wide variety of contexts" [useful in all grades and, I hope, in various school climates socially and economically]; and 4) "provide control, in the sense of stating the conditions under which the theory applies and describing a reasonable basis for action" [the theory should give creative writing teachers direction about what sorts of activities they could engage students in or about how they could interact with students] (Davidson, 2002; see, also, Grounded Theory, n.d.). "A reasonable basis for action" refers to practise, which seems paramount. Just as each action research cycle means "practice informs theory which in turn informs practice" (Dick, 1998, para. 4), Theory from Phenomenology means participant experience informs phenomenology which in turn informs theory which in turn informs practise, which refers to what some call theoretical applicability.

As I have said, I prefer to leave out the term applicability, with its hint of generalizability, in favour of extrapolation (Patton, 1987). It will take the teacher beyond the phenomenological interviews of my six studies, beyond the themes of the studies, and beyond the theory as defined by the experiences of six, information-rich creative writers. How? The themes as a checklist and the theory will both stand as direction for teachers. The checklist and theory will take teachers to their own students in in their own classrooms to address scholastic environments and activities. As I mentioned before, some students, given the right environment, like a marigold seed given the appropriate combinations of soil, nutrients, water, and sunshine, might germinate into creative writers. If educators want to think about what that right environment might be, the themes and theory from the studies will direct teachers with respect to appropriate practise.

The next step in my work as a researcher may be to truly test the generalizability of the theory. I might consider sending out a survey to many, many creative writers, to find out if the theory rings true for their experiences in school. I have not yet decided whether to follow a quantitative or qualitative paradigm. I will discuss this possibility in the "Future Research" section of Study III.

Footnotes

[1] Phenomenological research, which explores phenomena through whatever information seems opportune (e.g., interviews, documents, literature, philosophy, experience: this may refer to concrete sensory details, and to time, place, physiology, spirituality, and relationships), should follow a systematic methodology that, described fully, addresses bias, gathering of data, analysis, interpretation, and, if necessary, ethical concerns and sampling procedures. A systematic methodology can establish a study's validity.

Traditional quantitative research has attempted to establish validity through systematic, rigid methodology. In some phenomenological research, however, the exploration of phenomena sometimes alters or defines methodology needed along the way (Burch, 1991). In this circumstance, methodology altered or formulated along the way can still be explicitly described, thereby establishing its level of validity; however, when it is not explicitly described, it does not, in my mind, merit the necessary labels valid and systematic. [Back]

[2] My peer debriefer holds an MEd. He is very familiar with issues of bias in qualitative studies, especially those hermeneutic phenomenological. [Back]

[3] In the interest of my credibility as a researcher (McLean et al., 1997), a colleague who holds an MEd and who is very familiar with ethical issues in qualitative studies read my proposal for this study to verify that its ethical considerations and methodology fully reflect all ethical considerations and methodology of the original study, which he also read, and which had received official approval from the UNBC Ethics Department. [Back]

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