The Influence of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in Developing Social Cohesion Through Education: A South African Perspective

Marlene de Beer
PhD Research Student
Faculty of Social Sciences
University of Ulster, County Londonderry, Northern Ireland
E-mail: m.debeer@ulster.ac.uk / de_beer_marlene@hotmail.com

"Today's problems cannot be solved by thinking the way we thought when we created them."
Albert Einstein

"Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed, it's the only thing that ever has."
Margaret Mead

INTRODUCTION

This article looks at the influence of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's (non-denominational) Transcendental Meditation (TM) and Consciousness Based Education (CBE) and how these have been adapted by dedicated and committed small groups of individuals in South Africa (SA) to develop social cohesion and to meet educational challenges.

This article is also a rework of a section taken out of an earlier conference paper (de Beer, 2002a) at the First International Conference on Organisational Spirituality with the theme of "Living Spirit: New Dimensions in Work and Learning" at the University of Surrey in Guildford (UK).

The purpose of this article is not to provide quantitative evidence as to the impact of these initiatives on social cohesion. It has an explorative and descriptive case study approach to highlight some recent developments within the South Africa (SA) context that is perceived by the service providers, receivers and others (like myself as a researcher) as developing social cohesion. Additionally, Andy Green and John Preston (2001) caution: "...quantitative approaches may well miss the key issue for social cohesion. What do people join for and how does it enhance social integration?" (p.258). I, therefore, argue that the challenge remains to find alternative and creative ways to interpret our current state of bonding, bridging, and binding ties; to understand what holds us together when everything else seems to be pulling us apart, and when so many variables infringe on our current and future quality of life and well-being.

I start with methodological, theoretical and philosophical considerations that guide this article and continue with conceptual clarifications before presenting Maharishi's CBE and TM.

METHODOLOGICAL & THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

This paper forms part of a larger PhD research study that focuses on social cohesion discourses: their relevance for education (policy and practice) and interventions by international organizations to develop social cohesion through education. South Africa is the focus of the main case study, and a qualitative methodology with multiple data gathering methods has been used (Yin, 1991, p.85-94, Creswell, 1994, p.150):

• Primary: interviews (semi-structured), discussions and observations (direct and indirect; formal and informal: meetings and field research visits);
• Secondary: organizational website searches, study of organizational documents, journals, and newsletters, and email discussion lists, correspondence, and member checking; and
• Tertiary: books and academic journals.

The three theoretical streams that inspired this article are:

• Michel Foucault's (1974) power-knowledge-discourse paradigm,
• Jan Christiaan Smuts's (1926) holism, and
• Marcus Bussey's (2002) critical spirituality, Neo-Humanist and Neo-Humanist Education.

Power-knowledge-discourse paradigm:

From my broader research project, spirituality, consciousness and human potential development / evolution emerge as one of the major social cohesion themes (de Beer, 2002a,c & 2003c) which is often marginalized, silenced and identified as minorstream, particularly viewed from the dominant mainstream educational ideology. I therefore draw selectively on Michael Foucault's power-knowledge-discourse paradigm and attempt through this paper to create space and give voice to other and alternative discourses in minorstream educational social movements, e.g. that of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's CBE and TM, that appears to have a spirituality, consciousness and human potential development / evolution dimension in developing social cohesion. These are often 'silenced' and sometimes excluded and displaced (monitored, controlled, and regulated) by orthodox discourses in mainstream education and regimes of power. The dominant educational ideology produces its own truth (meaning and knowledge) in relation to the development of social cohesion through education as a normalizing and regulatory function (McNay, 1992, p.25; Odora Hoppers, 1997, p.15 and Foucault in Odora Hoppers, 1998, p. 5). I also agree with Xi-Shi (2001) that there is pressure to 'write safe', 'to please the mainstream' and to consolidate and perpetuate this position of power. I render my passion ineffectual if I "collude to legitimate, consolidate and perpetuate the existing hegemonic global order and aura" (Shi-Xu, 2001, p.48).

Holism:

Jan Christiaan Smuts (1926) [Note 1] coined the term holism. Holism underlies the synthetic tendency in the universe, and is the principle that makes for the origin and progress of wholes in the universe. An attempt is made to show that this whole-making or holistic tendency is fundamental in nature, that it has a well marked ascertainable character, and that Evolution is nothing but the gradual development and stratification of progressive series of wholes, stretching from the inorganic beginnings to the highest levels of spiritual creation (Jan Christiaan Smuts, 1926, p.v). The character of wholeness deepens: Holism is not only creative but self-creative and its final structures are far more holistic than the initial structures. As Holism is a process of creative synthesis, the resulting wholes are not static but dynamic, evolving, creative. Hence, Evolution has an ever-deepening inward spiritual holistic character; and the wholes of Evolution and the evolutionary process itself can only be understood in reference to this fundamental character of wholeness (Jan Christiaan Smuts, 1926, p.87). Evolution is a fact of observation and experience; and it shows a persistent trend from matter to life, from life to more life and to higher life; from higher life to mind, from mind to more and higher mind, and to spirit in its highest creative manifestations (Jan Christiaan Smuts, 1926, p.178). Jan Christiaan Smuts (1926, p.vi) hoped to show how holism affects the higher spiritual interests of humankind and commented that the old concepts and formulas are no longer adequate. The old bottles will no longer hold the new wine. The spiritual temple of the future, while it will be built largely of the old well-provided materials, will require new and ampler foundations in the light of immense extension of our intellectual horizons. He continued stating: "Spiritual wholes are merely the apex and crowning feature of the universe, while non-spiritual (material or organic) wholes compose its earlier phases (Jan Christiaan Smuts, 1926, p.333).

Critical spirituality:

According to Marcus Bussey, (2002, pp.306, 308) critical spirituality is concerned with the application of neo-humanist methods to the analysis of 'consciousness' and offers a layered description of consciousness. The critical spiritual perspective, as advocated by Marcus Bussey, has developed from four main areas (2002, pp.303-204) that I also embrace in emerging and different ways in my own study:

• Post modernist and post structuralist thinkers;
• Feminist empowering postmodern discourse with value laden analysis of power;
• Post colonial thinkers with a dept to neo-Marxist and critical theorists;
• Neo-humanist thinkers with an investment in all three of the above (who work from a critically spiritual perspective).

Critical spirituality also focuses on the connection between individual consciousness and personal and collective action and "points to the fact that it will go no where if not within, to that place -- the spiritual core of humanity -- that many in academia fear" (Marcus Bussey, 2002, p.314).

Neo-Humanist (NH) and Neo-Humanist Education (NHE):

Marcus Bussey (1998, 2002) states that NH is a process of becoming consciously, self consciously, human. Essentially it is a term both general and specific, covering as it does all the 'holisms' that have sprung up in the humanities, sciences, and social movements in recent decades, while more specifically being a set of principles for living based on the ethic of universal love. NH recognizes that there are a variety of ways of knowing and experiencing the world that are steeped in valid and integrated knowledge systems, each with its own particular form of logic and expression, with no one way of knowing holding priority over any other. NH is a spiritual force because it acknowledges and actively promotes spiritual practice as one of the more authentic ways to achieve a sense of belonging in the universe. This sense of belonging cannot come from simple assertions that we belong: the rhetoric of belonging. Love, reverence and responsibility will not magically appear within us as transformative forces simply because we think they should. Nor will the authority to teach and guide others burst forth in our lives without some real effort being made to plumb the depths of ourselves in a contemplative and disciplined way. NHE is consequently viewed as a Trans-Disciplinary Approach that honors the multiplicity that is the sum of human consciousness. Traditional education has involved an attempt to strip learning down to its discrete parts and demystify knowledge. Neo-Humanism seeks to put the mystery back into learning by weaving the disciplines back into a holistic worldview that engages the whole of the child's spirit, mind and body in a quest of wonder and adventure. NHE unleashes infinite learning potential into our lives by expanding our understanding of our potential and ourselves. Spirituality, creativity and love are placed at the center of this new force [Note 2].

This article, therefore, seeks to introduce alternative educational discourses that appear to be more holistic, spiritual and founded on NH. Marcus Bussey (1998, p.708) states: "The new consciousness will be holistic, having its roots deep within an indigenous appreciation that it is consciousness not humanity that is central to the drama of existence". NH and NHE therefore seem to embrace (amongst other things) layers of mystery, awe, creativity, reflection, meditation, silence, consciousness, ethics and critical spirituality (Marcus Bussey, 2002). Other approaches (only to be named in this article) that may fall within this holistic, NHE and spiritual model in developing social cohesion through education, may include the influence of, for example: Vivekananda and Yogananda, Shrii Satya Sai Baba, Ananda Marga Gurukula (Tantra University), Rudolf Steiner (Waldorf schools and Theosophical society), Maria Montessori, Friedrich Froebel, Jiddu Krishnamutri, and Brama Kumaris World Spiritual University (for example see Ulcca Joshi Hanses, 2003; Henry Barnes, 2003; Gerald Gutek, 2003; Timothy Seldin, 2003, Marcus Bussey, 1998 & 2002; Suettmann, 2002; Dillbeck & Dillbeck, 1987; Schmidt-Wilk, Heaton & Steingard, 2000; Grant, 1998 & 1999; Grant & Jones, 1998; Marlene de Beer, 2002a,c & 2003c).

CLARIFYING SOCIAL COHESION AS A CONCEPT

The following conceptual clarification is integrated from various conference papers and publications (de Beer, 2001; 2002a,b,c; 2003a,b,c,d & 2004a,b).

The African perspective:

The African and South African indigenous expression for social cohesion is UBUNTU. It is an African word, practice, and philosophy that signify 'I am because you are', or 'a person is a person through other persons' (Mogobe Ramose, 2002). Ubuntu involves be-ing, experience, knowledge and truth in the plurality of its voices and presents it through the voice from within. It renders a human-ness, whole-ness and flow of be-ing and becoming. It is never fixed or rigidly closed; it allows others to be, to become. There is a dialogue of mutual exposure: "To be human is to affirm one's humanity by recognizing the humanity of others in its infinite variety of content and form". Ubuntu substitutes "I think, therefore I am", for, "I participate, therefore I am". It is a process of self-realization through others; it enhances the self-realization of others; and it facilitates self-reflective multicultural contextualisation. In other words: "You cannot lead people to what is good, you only lead them to some place or other. The good is outside the space of facts". Johan Broodryk (2002, pp.31-64) provides the following UBUNTU core (and associated) values:

• humanness (warmth, tolerance, understanding, peace, humanity);
• caring (empathy, sympathy, helpfulness, charitable, friendliness);
• sharing (giving, redistribution, openhandedness);
• respect (commitment, dignity, obedience, order, normative);
• compassion (love, cohesion, informality, forgiveness, spontaneity).

The Canadian perspective:

The Canadian Policy Research Network and their Social Cohesion Network, and the Strategic Research and Analysis at the Department of Canadian Heritage have done more than five years of social cohesion related research. Drawing on their work and integrating their definitions (Jane Jenson, 1998 & 2002; Paul Bernard, 1999; Sharon Jeannotte, 2000; Maureen Williams, 2001; Dick Stanley, 2002; Sharon Jeannotte, Dick Stanley, Ravi Pendakur, Bruce Jamieson, Maureen Williams, and Amanda Aizlewood, 2002; and Caroline Beauvais & Jane Jenson, 2002), social cohesion could be seen as a ongoing process and deals with bipolar dimensions of: belonging/isolation, inclusion/exclusion, participation/non-involvement, recognition/rejection, legitimacy/illegitimacy, equality/inequality, reciprocity, trust, hope and shared values.

The Netherlands perspective:

I also appreciate the discussion of Talja Blockland in "Unraveling three of a kind: Cohesion, Community and Solidarity" (2000), which provides a practical angle on social cohesion and seeing it as three processes of (drawing on the work of Kees Schuyt, 1997):

• Wanting to take part (vs. dropping out / opting out);
• Being allowed to take part (vs. discrimination); and
• Being able to take part (vs. deprivation, enabling).

Towards an integrated perspective:

I have also developed the following broad definition on social cohesion during the beginning stage of my inquiry (de Beer, 2001; and integrating Heyneman, 2000, 2003; Heyneman & Todoric-Bebic, 2000; European Committee for Social Cohesion, 2000; Heydt, 1999; and the UN Research Institute for Social Development, 1995):

Social cohesion could therefore be seen as -

• a general term attempting to address a range of issues relating to conflict within countries often associated with ethnic diversity, civil unrest, or political violence;
• part of a broader peace making/keeping, or post-conflict peace building process where actions to strengthen and support structures will strengthen and solidify peace and avoid a relapse into conflict;
• going beyond treating the symptoms of exclusion and also seeks, more positively, to strengthen those forces that help to create social solidarity and a sense of belonging (what binds people together?);
• a broad-ranging synonym for greater justice (human rights and diversity), equality, (material, psycho-social, emotional and spiritual) well-being and quality of life, human dignity and democratic freedom; and
• the main vehicle of that 'human ideal' towards which any society should strive (common moral rudder/good).

Theoretical origins:

Additionally, commenting on the theoretical origins and explanations for social cohesion from a sociological perspective, Èmile Durkheim's mechanical and organic solidarity and Ferdinand Tönnies's Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft are identified. Even Durkheims' theory on suicide has implications for social cohesion and the theoretical aspects of Max Weber, Talcott Parsons and Karl Marx may also serve useful. I though also share Talja Blockland's (2000, p.56) unease that the theoretical framework in current use is inadequate for studying cohesion (probably because the philosophical and sociological origins has been hijacked by political, economical and policy agendas). Furthermore, these theoretical frameworks are also malestream dominated (also see Selma Sevenhuijsen, 1999).

Metaphors:

As white light disperse trough a prism and produce a rainbow of colours, so is /or may there be a rainbow of social cohesion perspectives and interpretations. Unfortunately, the reality is that the rainbow colour of white light falls only in a very narrow visible range of a much broader spectrum of possibilities (e.g. radio, microwave, infrared, X-ray, gamma-rays). Our sight is limited and may therefore deceive us. Similarly, social cohesion may have an easily visible nature; with the danger of limiting interpretation formed from this single sensory activity only or predominantly. Most importantly, my journey to understand what social cohesion might mean has led me amongst several paths which is rather like a kaleidoscope, bits and pieces, fragments of 'social cohesion' interpretations, each with its own colouring, size, brightness, transparency... and it's patterns, images and interpretation change as the person turns the instrument...and the play of mirrors and reflections signifies a possible new and different gaze... (also see Claude Levi-Struass, 1972, p.36). I therefore present Maharishi CBE and TM as an alternative example indicating processing working towards a more socially cohesive society according to their own particular worldviews and approaches.

The following section focuses on the Maharishi CBE and TM and how it is used and implemented in SA.

MAHARISHI's CONSCIOUSNESS-BASED EDUCATION (CBE)

"Transcendental Meditation opens the awareness to the infinite reservoir of energy, creativity and intelligence that lies deep within everyone."

"By enlivening this most basic level of life, Transcendental Meditation is that one simple procedure which can raise the life of every individual and every society to its full dignity, in which problems are absent and perfect health, happiness, and a rapid pace of progress are the natural features of life."

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi

The above two quotes also resonates with the earlier theoretical perspectives provided, e.g. Holism and Critical Spirituality and could signify our quest for higher evolution and Neo-Humanist ideals.

I present Maharishi's CBE and TM and the SA case study initiative in the following manner: I will provide background information outlining the

• educational challenges (for an individual learner/student, teacher/facilitator at pedagogical, community, and global society level),
• CBE technology and techniques to address these challenges (e.g. TM and the Science of Creative Intelligence Curriculum),
• research results and the effects of Maharishi's CBE (pedagogical, for teachers and individual learners, e.g. affective, cognitive, and physiological characteristics, and community and global society effect).

I will also integrate and provide detail of the SA case study initiatives as appropriate.

The case study is based on the follow data -

Personal visits to C.I.D.A. City Campus and discussion (in person, telephonically and via email) with co-directors:

• Conrad Mhlongo & Taddy Blecher on 22 October 2001 &
• Richard Peycke (mvi@intekom.co.za) on 20 December 2001 & 26 January 2002

The purpose of the visits was to explore and describe what this origination is doing within the SA contexts in developing social cohesion through Maharishi's TM & CBE.

A description and integration of these 'findings' follows in the form of main questions arising from a critical panel of colleagues at the UNESCO Centre, academics, researchers, conference delegates, and various discussions with peers on this initiative.

I also took these matters and questions back to the above-mentioned co-directors for further comments and clarification through email discussions.

Additionally I also had an email discussion with Dr Michael Dillbeck (dillbecks@Maharishi.net), the CBE Director at the Maharishi University of Management in Fairfield, Iowa, U.S.A, to further clarify other issues raised (July 2, 2002). Dr Dillbeck is also a research scientist in education at Maharishi University of Management (MUM). Aside from a broad range of interests and publications, Dr Dillbeck has measured IQ changes and other variables in educational psychology.

Dr Alex Hankey (alexhank@dircon.co.uk) was a presenter at the Ninth Annual International Conference on Education, Spirituality and the Whole Child: Education for Peace (20-22 June 2002)(University of Surrey, Roehampton, UK), during a Consciousness Based Education symposium (22 June). I made contact with Dr Hankey after this conference. He taught the first undergraduate course at Maharishi University of Management (MUM), USA, in 1973. I had various email discussions with Dr Hankey and also met him personally during December 2002 in London.

(I will indicate their direct comments as italics)

I also did the TM course in SA during 2000 and enrolled for a satellite CBE training course during 2001 in SA that covered various BCE and TM issues to follow in this article. Profs Dillbeck & Dillbeck delivered it from the Maharishi University of Management in Fairfield, Iowa, U.S.A (see http://www.mum.edu/). The course comprised a series of 16 lecturers of about 1½ hour each session. This enabled me to have a deeper understanding for the concepts and actual practice of TM and CBE without which I do not think I would have been able to write about Maharishi's approach and the SA case study in this article. I also need to mention that my interest in the TM initiative originated after reading the article of Orsine (1999) in the Quality Life magazine entitled, Meet me at the saffron gates (pp.40-42). Never did I think my exploration around Maharishi's CBE and TM would develop into something as a research article four years later!

Educational CHALLENGES for a individual learner / student, teacher / facilitator at pedagogical, community and global society level:

The study of education grew out of a desire to improve the quality of schools and universities and to create a positive influence on the society that it serves. The knowledge available in this area of study, however, has not given any educational system what it needs to produce wise, mature, and fulfilled citizens or a peaceful world. Students are dissatisfied, teachers are discouraged, and the public is not happy with the results (Dillbeck & Dillbeck, 1987). When students are not growing in receptivity, depth, inner discipline, or enthusiasm for learning, they themselves become frustrated, teachers become exhausted, and the whole environment suffers from lack of creativity, coherence, and progress (Schmidt-Wilk, Heaton & Steingard, 2000). The integration and full value of the three fundamental aspects of education: the knower, or student; the known, or subject matter; and the processes of knowing, which connect knower to known, are not realized (Schmidt-Wilk, Heaton & Steingard, 2000). Teaching only the content of the disciplines, we cannot give students what they need to prepare them fully for life. For example, knowledge of the electronic and nuclear levels of natural law has led to expansion of destructive nuclear power without corresponding expansion of the ability to create harmony and lasting peace (Dillbeck et.al., 1987)(Also see Slide 1 for more detail). Unfortunately, most educators have not understood the primary importance of the knower in the interaction of these three components, or how to improve all three simultaneously, or what to expect when the potential of each is fully realized.

In Maharishi's view, lack of access to the deepest level of the mind (creative intelligence) is the source of widespread personal dissatisfaction among students. When the expanding understanding of the outer world does not bring expansion of personal fulfillment and self-knowledge, a continuous thirst develops that is never satisfied (Dillbeck et.al., 1987). This thirst is for knowledge - knowledge that will bring happiness and fulfillment to their lives. When their education fails to provide this knowledge, students become uninterested (drop-outs), destructive (anti-social behaviour), or seek temporary relief through activities that damage their physical and mental health (e.g. alcohol and drug abuse, crime and violence).

The educational challenge, therefore, is to develop in the students that refinement of the nervous system that can permanently sustain the most refined and powerful processes of knowing (Schmidt-Wilk, Heaton & Steingard, 2000). Of equal concern is the failure of our institutions to foster in the student the traits and values that uphold the integrity and progress of society - enlightened self-interest, rationality, compassion, justice, breadth of vision. These more subtle values have long been associated with liberal education. Yet no educational system has been able to consistently produce graduates who embody the highest qualities of human life (Dillbeck et.al., 1987).

TECHNOLOGY and techniques to address these challenges:

Maharishi has suggested that the solution to the problems in education lies in developing the limitless inner potential of students and teachers -- therefore systematically unfolding the full range of human consciousness (Grant, 1998). CBE develops the full value of the three fundamental aspects of education: the knower, or student; the known, or subject matter; and the processes of knowing, which connect knower to known (Schmidt-Wilk, Heaton & Steingard, 2000). CBE suggests that the deficiencies in education today result from the knower's limited experience of his or her own infinite potential, and that these deficiencies can be eliminated by stabilizing in the awareness of student and teacher the experience of the full potential of the mind: transcendental consciousness (Grant, 1998). The theory and experience of transcendental consciousness is applied in the CBE system. It has three features - the standard academic curriculum, the Transcendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Sidhi programmes, and the Science of Creative Intelligence (Dillbeck et.al., 1987)(Also see Slide 2 for more detail). The different fields of study are integrated and specific teaching methods and materials are included to help the students relate the objective knowledge they are gaining to the expansion of their own creative intelligence and inner happiness.

TM is the foundation of the Maharishi educational programmes. TM is an easily learned, natural technique during which the individual experiences the unified field of natural law in his/her own awareness as transcendental consciousness (Also see Slide 3 for more detail). The TM technique is practical for any educational system. It does not require changing the school's established curriculum. It is easily learned in a few hours and is simple and effortless to practice. The practice of TM requires no change in belief or lifestyle and is effective irrespective of educational background, level of intelligence, or belief in its reported benefits. It is not a religion; it is not a form of prayer; it involves no contemplation of particular ideas, or concentration. It is a universal, scientific approach to human development whose effects result from the body becoming deeply rested and the mind experiencing more of its creative potential (Dillbeck et.al., 1987). The TM-Sidhi programme enhances the effects of TM by developing the individual's ability to perceive, think, feel, and act while maintaining transcendental consciousness. CBE also includes instructional material and teaching techniques, which connect the parts of knowledge with the wholeness of knowledge and the knower (e.g. Unified Field-, Main point- and Unity Charts) (Grant, 1998).

The science of creative intelligence curriculum for elementary and secondary education:

Elementary and secondary students participating in CBE take a Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI) course designed by Maharishi and other educators for grades 1 through 12. In addition to their usual academic classes, students have classes in SCI three to five times per week for about 20 minutes. The "laboratory" component of this course is the twice- daily practice of TM. The stated goal of the SCI curriculum is "to provide understanding and experience of creative intelligence and thereby develop the physiology and psychology of every student for full expression of creative intelligence in practical life... [The curriculum] unfolds in a sequence of themes that expand the student's awareness to encompass the entire range of life" (Dillbeck et.al., 1987). In the course of the whole SCI curriculum the students locate universal principles and qualities in their own lives, in the community, in nature, in myths, in the lives of great men and women, in the different subjects of study, and in their practice of the TM and TM-Sidhi programmes. The materials, language, and learning activities of the SCI curriculum are tailored for specific age groups.

The ultimate goal of the Maharishi integrated approach to education is to develop students and teachers to the highest level of consciousness, to full enlightenment, and through this process of development to create an ideal society. Maharishi founded CBE as the most practical and effective way to advance toward this highest state of individual and social development (Schmidt-Wilk, Heaton & Steingard, 2000).

I will now provide an introduction to the C.I.D.A. case study:

C.I.D.A.: WHAT, WHEN & HOW?

C.I.D.A. stands for The Community and Individual Development Association. It started of very informally with the support of a small group of volunteers interested in Maharishi's TM & CBE during 1995. It became a SA indigenously non-profit organization with a developmental focus in community and individual education and aiming at find ways of introducing Maharishi's CBE through TM in disadvantaged schools. C.I.D.A. therefore started introducing TM schools projects in SA townships: Alexandra (Johannesburg)(1997), Kwa-Kwa (both 10,000 learners) and Cross-Roads (Cape Town). This meant that they introduced only the TM component of CBE to the learners, teachers, administrators and interested parents of the above-mentioned schools.

How do you deal with resistance and level of acceptance of implementing CBE in SA schools?

We have had to be so careful over the past few years Ä through the intricate maze of bureaucracy, perceptions, and feelings.

Any new intervention in an extended system has to go the route of education, lobbying, and building of trust. In the end, perceptions will be most strongly affected by whether or not expectations are reasonably met.

We, as the implementers, obviously learned a lot about how to present to the particular groups we were dealing with.

A lot of individual expression and opinion is encouraged. Best results come when students are convinced by their own experience and observations.

Therefore, in some cases CBE can be implemented either by founding a new school to fully incorporate this approach, in which case it is implemented universally; or by adding this approach to an existing school through one period per day of understanding and experience of consciousness.

In the latter case, it is best for all students to participate, with their parents' consent (we also encourage and recommend that at least one parent is also doing TM); and enough teachers have to participate in order to be trained to teach this additional period. Also all the teachers should be familiar with the programme, so that they understand its benefits, as verified by research. The later approach was followed in SA and as mentioned earlier, this meant that they introduced only the TM component of CBE to the learners, teachers, administrators and interested parents of the above-mentioned schools.

How did the C.I.D.A. City Campus start?

The TM schools project naturally flowed into a C.I.D.A. City Campus (Johannesburg, SA) as various pupils who have been exposed to TM in the mentioned schools (after completing Matrix [SA term for level 12 schooling]), inquired from C.I.D.A. if there are any further initiatives that they could be exposed to. C.I.D.A. City Campus consequently started operating during 2000 and gained formal registration as a higher educational institution during 2001. It offers an accredited BBA (Bachelors in Business Administration) degree (20 modules / subjects, founded on a holistic and aspiring consciousness-based education approach), with tuition scholarships for deserving pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds and communities (especially rural) in SA.

Why did C.I.D.A. City Campus decide to begin with a BBA?

Government reform initiatives through, for example the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), the Growth, Employment and Redistribution Strategy (GEAR) and the drive towards an African Renaissance identified governance capacity building through business initiatives in SA as one of the greatest educational need after apartheid. The C.I.D.A. co-directors supported this priority and thus decided on presenting a BBA.

Student numbers and plans for extensions of C.I.D.A. City Campus:

During 2000, a thousand learners enrolled. During 2001 there were 10,000 applicants, but due to limited capacity, only 1,500 could be admitted. Learners who registered during 2000 were themselves involved in the selection process for the 2001 intake. SA private institutions and businesses sponsor all learners. For the cost of one student at other SA universities, C.I.D.A. educates 20 students, thus reducing the overall cost by between 10--20%. There are plans to extend the university to provide other degree courses, and similar campuses are envisaged in Durban, Cape Town, and elsewhere. These will be managed by potential Johannesburg C.I.D.A. City Campus graduates of 2003.

Their teaching and delivery approach of C.I.D.A. City Campus:

C.I.D.A. follows a multi-media approach with one formal lecturer, guest lecturers, and facilitators. It is a hands-on-application with theoretical knowledge, remedial knowledge, real world knowledge, strong skills, values, and home-community development initiatives. In this way, learners take back what they have learned and apply it to their own communities. This initiative therefore does not only seem to develop human potential but also address poverty and promote sustainable development. Moreover, the learners themselves are involved and take responsibility for the running and administration of the C.I.D.A. City Campus, and get acknowledgement/'credits' for this service.

Within the City Campus, only the TM and TM-Sidhi programme are introduced without the SCI component because all the local teachers and administrators associated with the C.I.D.A. City Campus only have the basic TM and TM-Sidhi training. C.I.D.A. City Campus though does envisage implementing the SCI component as and when teaching are received and experience gained in this area.

Recent developments at C.I.D.A. City Campus: A stronger stream of national and international educators and government-linked and business people are visiting C.I.D.A. Microsoft is making all products and courses available to C.I.D.A. Dimension Data is putting in 5 mil ZA Rand in IT infrastructure and is installing a world-class campus MIS. The BBA program will, in the near future automatically provide several other industry standard certificates, such as banking, insurance, and investment. This is a first for SA and will make the graduates more in demand. Five hundred students per year will also have access to student loans without collateral. This has not happened before, as financing education has been a third world stumbling block. CIDA also had their inaugural ceremony during November 2002, opened and supported by the Minister of Education, Prof Kadar Asmal. This unique model, and the principles and values advocated and practiced are perceived as contributing to developing social coherence in SA. This can also be used as the basis to develop an indigenous CBE educational model for the rest of Africa aimed at the prevention of conflict and the promotion of peace.

Within a broader context, schools and universities elsewhere in the world using CBE (and coordinated by the Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation) are:

• Sagewood School in Midrand, SA
• several schools and projects in Mozambique, Mauritius, and Germany
• In England: Maharishi School of the Age of Enlightenment in Skelmersdale, Lancashire County (see http://www.maharishischool.com/)
• In Fairfield, Iowa, U.S.A.:
  • Maharishi School of the Age of Enlightenment (see http://www.maharishischooliowa.org/ )
  • Maharishi University of Management (see http://www.mum.edu/ )
  • Maharishi Spiritual University of America

There is also a CBE Association (see http://www.cbeprograms.org/ ) that facilitates coordination of initiatives and further developments amongst, for example, CBE teachers and administrators.

RESULTS & EFFECTS

Pedagogical: How this approach solves current educational problems and is giving rise to new, more powerful principles for guiding educational practice (Dillbeck et.al., 1987 & Maharishi University Of Management, 1997):

• Extensive research and experience demonstrate that the CBE programme is uniquely effective in enabling educational systems to realize their highest aims. It fully unfolds and unifies knower, known, and process of knowing, thereby making education most rewarding and complete, and enables students to adapt to a changing world.
• As stress is eliminated from individual and collective life, the whole classroom spontaneously becomes more orderly, purposeful, and lively; self-discipline and enthusiasm harmoniously coexist.
• CBE thus gives a new basis for curriculum integrity, the common ground of student and subject matter, experienced as the simplest form of the students' awareness. With fully awakened and unbounded comprehension, students can fully appreciate and integrate the different fields of knowledge.

Teachers (Dillbeck et.al., 1987, Grant, 1999 & Maharishi University Of Management, 1997):

• Improved health and decreased teacher burnout.
• Develops inner stability and resistance to stress.
• Increased teacher creativity, personal satisfaction, and self-actualization
• Teachers find it easier to meet a wide range of individual needs, attending to the slower students while maintaining high standards and stimulating the most gifted minds.
• More effective administration and organization.

Maharishi has identified five qualities as the "Fundamentals of Progress", and TM has shown that CBE fosters the physiological and psychological growth of these fundamentals (Dillbeck et.al., 1987). Teachers who readily apply new knowledge and research findings in their classrooms seem to possess certain qualities:

• inner stability, which gives them the confidence and boldness to try something different;
• adaptability, which makes them open to new possibilities;
• integration, which enables them to introduce a new idea or approach into their established patterns of teaching, bringing new and old ideas together;
• purification, the ability to discontinue types of behaviour or activities that are not producing the results they want;
• growth, continuous mental, physical, and spiritual development.

Individual learner: Through the regular practice of TM for 15--20 minutes twice daily, the infinite creativity and perfect orderliness of the unified field become increasingly lively in daily life. At the same time, the TM technique gives deep rest and releases stresses that impede optimal functioning of mind, body, and behaviour (Dillbeck et.al., 1987). As the individual repeatedly experiences transcendental consciousness, the functioning of the entire nervous system becomes more integrated and efficient, leading to improved mental abilities, health, and social behaviour. Students develop a greater sense of well-being, more life-supporting thoughts and behaviour, and more effective and fulfilling activity, raising the quality of their lives both in and out of school (Schmidt-Wilk, Heaton & Steingard, 2000).

Affective, cognitive, and physiological characteristics (Dillbeck et.al., 1987, Grant, 1999, Grant & Jones, 1998 & & Maharishi University Of Management, 1997)( Also see Slides 4 & 5 for more detail):

• Physiological: eliminates stress and creates calmness; increased restful alertness; reduced breath rate; increased EEG coherence; reduced stress hormone; more adaptive response to stress; reduced hypertension and hyper-cholesterolemia; and flexibility and stability (resistance to stress and improved health), which are crucial to effective learning.
• Social behavior: increased - social maturity, psychological health and mastery over life; sociability; capacity for warm interpersonal relationships; friendliness; respect for the views of others; attentiveness to others; ability to cooperate with others; work and personal relationships; ability to be objective; fair-minded, and reasonable; good humor; trust; growth of a more sympathetic, helpful, and caring nature; sensitivity to the feelings of others; higher moral atmosphere in classroom and school. Among children with learning problems - improved self-regard and decreased general anxiety, test anxiety, and school dislike; mentally retarded children - show reduced behaviour problems. For example, reductions in drug and alcohol abuse.
• Cognitive: improved academic performance, alertness, memory, abstract reasoning, creativity, intelligence and independence.
• Affective: characteristics of high self-esteem and emotional stability contribute significantly to classroom performance; improved self-concept & self-confidence; increased self-actualization; reduced depression, neuroticism, and anxiety; reduced aggression and dominance; and increased tolerance.

Teachers most strongly emphasized the affective qualities of Maharishi School students. The most common characteristics reported by all teachers were that the students are kinder, happier, gentler and more sensitive to others, than students they had previously taught who did not practice the TM programme. Other results reported by teachers were that student relationships with teachers and fellow students also improved, and mean or cruel behaviour and comments were almost entirely absent. Similarly, although Maharishi School students have groups of favourite friends, they tend not to form cliques that exclude other students.

What have been the benefits of TM over time for the C.I.D.A. School project?

In just a few days after implementation teachers' report that benefits seen include (Report on major TM & CBE scientific research findings, provided by Taddy Blecher, 8 July 2002, p.17):

• Improved learning ability
• Greater co-operation from students
• Improved behavior
• Less violence and disorder in classrooms and halls
• More focused classroom environment
• The learners seem happier and more alert

Within a few months after implementation educational measurement shows:

• Increased ability to focus and broad comprehension
• Increased intelligence
• Improved memory
• More creativity
• Increased tolerance
• Increased self-confidence
• Decreased anxiety

Within a year educational measurement shows:

• Improved marks (at least 10% improvement in aggregate within one year)
• Improved intellectual performance
• Increased creativity
• Improved moral reasoning
• Improved choice reaction time
• Reduced substance abuse

Questions regarding the measurement/evaluation of the SA project include:

It's the difference between classical approaches and unified-field based approaches. Education has conditioned us to expect cause-effect dynamics at the classical level.

The research we did was based on the official returns submitted by the schools to the department of education. The report was given to the principals for checking, and once they were happy, to the dept. The statistics are very elementary and were completely understandable/checkable by the principals and their staff.

Sharon Edens of RUA (Rand Afrikaans University) did a study on anxiety and confidence, with positive outcomes.

After one year of observing CBE, the director general of education for Gauteng actually came to Alexandra to encourage other principals to try it.

Other factors that influenced the SA TM schools project has been the following:

Alexandra was not a place for whites to venture into easily. Many people were too afraid to come in for long, even with us.

We were a tiny team trying to work with 10,000 students. Research, even done by others, takes a lot of one's time. One has to escort them, etc. So we were not looking for extra work.

There are significant hindrances, such as lack of validated instruments and language problems.

This includes the initial TM schools projects that had far-reaching educational results and brought about visible community safety and stability. The C.I.D.A. City Campus TM activities have also brought a visible change to the inner-city environment as observed and reported by various people working in and visiting the inner city area.

Community & global society:

The underlying stress, tension, and turbulence accumulating in society are manifested as violence, crime, terrorism and warfare. TM provides a mechanism to prevent and neutralize the underlying social stress that gives rise to such destructive behaviour.

TM creates a school environment that is harmonious and creative and both peaceful and dynamic. With the implementation of CBE, a school or university can generate an immediate and measurable positive impact upon the quality of life of the entire society (Suettmann, 2002). The basis of this bold assertion is a principle that has repeatedly been demonstrated by scientific research. A group equal in size to the square root of one percent of a society's population practising the TM and TM-Sidhi programmes together in one place generates an influence of coherence and harmony in the collective consciousness level of a nation. This immediately neutralizes stress and negative tendencies in the whole society. Coherence and harmony in the collective consciousness can be operationally defined in terms of improved quality of life indicators and in increased positive trends in national and international life, such as reduced crime, accidents, and violence, improved economic and health trends, peace and social progress. This holistic improvement in the quality of life is known as the Maharishi Effect (Maharishi University Of Management, 1997): a result of this Effect, the thoughts and actions of everyone in the society begin to accord with the full range of the laws of nature available in the unified field. As a result, the behaviour of citizens is directed towards promoting progress and harmony in society, rather than stress and conflict. CBE has thus raised the dignity of educational institutions so that students and teachers, even as they are unfolding their own inner potential and creating a dynamic and positive school environment, are also immediately improving the quality of life of the entire society and contributing to world peace (Dillbeck et.al., 1987 [& also see Note 3]).

In summary, more than 600 scientific research studies conducted in the past 35 years, at over 200 universities and research institutions in 30 countries have documented the benefits of the educational technology of CBE and the TM Programme, for mental potential, health, social behaviour, and the environment. These findings have been published in over 100 peer-reviewed journals and have been replicated many times, and meta-analyses, which are the most quantitatively rigorous means to review a body of research, have found a high degree of consistency of the results. The design of these studies, using the most sophisticated, rigorous research methodologies prove causality, have strongly verified and extended preliminary findings. This body of research is unique in the extent of its cross validation, which means that the many different types of physiological, psychological, and sociological measures validate the findings (Report on major TM & CBE scientific research findings, provided by Taddy Blecher - C.I.D.A. co-director - 8 July 2002, p.10-11, also see http://www.mum.edu/ed_dept/papers/ressum_frm.html and Annex 1: References of Scientifically verified International studies on TM).

SUMMARY, EVALUATION & RECOMMENDATIONS

South Africa has gone through what the world labeled a miraculous transformation from an Apartheid State with human rights abuses and racial discrimination to a democratic society with one of the most advanced and progressive Constitutions and Bill of Rights in the world. However, as in many countries, it is still troubled by crime, violence against women and children (gang raping of babies as young as five months), disproportionate spending on arms (R50-billion [Note 4]) and there is an outcry to address poverty, illiteracy, and the HIV/AIDS pandemic. New leadership is therefore needed to implement transformational policies that can be developed into sustainable practices, promote social cohesion, quality of life and well-being for all. Educational institutions, technologies and programs are critical in building this vision of an ideal society.

The President of the Republic of SA, Thabo Mbeki, commented (21 June 2001, National Assembly) as follows on initiatives as the above:

Seven years since our freedom, we have many individuals and companies that are taking extra-ordinary measures to end the marginalization of disempowerment of the majority of our peopleÄ

...there are many individuals that are selflessly contributing to the development of many of their fellow South Africans, and through their innovation and creative approaches give us the much-desired leadership.

The education offered is designed to make students relevant, truly empowered, integrated citizens and leaders that are skilled and equipped to build the South African economy and society.

This paper, therefore, examined the role and unique contribution of a 'non-mainstream'/'alternative' initiative in SA to develop social cohesion through education, namely that of Maharishi's CBE and TM. This paper attempted to dispel myths and promote understanding of organizations that have a 'spiritual', ethical, and consciousness raising approach to promoting social cohesion through education. It did not attempt to promote any particular religious dogma; instead, it promoted human dignity, potential and quality of life. Much can be learned from these initiatives in the promotion of social cohesion. It is recommended that consideration be given to integrating them as complementary to mainstream educational technologies both nationally and internationally.

It appears as if CBE & TM are increasingly widely recognized. When leading figures endorse Maharishi and his programs, there is no adverse comment (e.g. when the SA Minister of Education, Prof Kadar Asmal, inaugurated CIDA City campus during November 2002). In a climate of positive opinion, it is possible to promote CBE to a point where the establishment will give it consideration (confirmed by email discussion with Dr. Alex Hankey, 7 & 11 July 2002).

Here is the challenge: Will the dominant power-knowledge-discourse paradigm continue to marginalize these alternative spiritual and holistic approaches to developing social cohesion through education? Foucault vividly illustrated such an attitude (in Gutting, 1994, p.166 & Foucault, 1974, p.387) as "a face drawn in the sand at the edge of the sea." We need more people exploring the edges and as Marcus Bussey (2002, p.314) states: "It is from such places that our tomorrows will arise. The 'centre' is shifting, but where will it go?"

REFERENCES

Barnes, Henry. (2003).

Steiner, Rudolf (1861-1925) in Guthrie, James W. (Ed). Encyclopedia of Education (second Ed.) Volume 7 (pp.2364-2366).

 

Beauvais, Caroline, and Jenson, Jane. (2002).

Social Cohesion: Updating the State of the Research. CPRN Discussion Paper No. F/22. Ottawa: Canadian Policy Research Networks.

 

Bernard, Paul. (1999).

Social Cohesion: A Critique. Canadian Policy Research Networks. Discussion Paper No. F-093. Ottawa: Canadian Policy Research Network.

 

Blockland, Talja. (2000).

Unraveling three of a kind: Cohesion, Community and Solidarity. The Netherlands' Journal of Social Sciences, 30(1), 56-70.

 

Broodryk, Johan. (2002).

UBUNTU: Life Lessons form Africa. Pretoria: UBUNTU School of Philosophy.

 

Bussey, Marcus. (1998).

Tantra as Episteme: A Pedagogy of the future. Futures, 30:705-716.

 

Bussey, Marcus. (2002).

From change to progress: critical spirituality and the future of future studies. Futures, 34, 303-315.

 

Creswell, John W. (1994).

Research Design: Qualitative & Quantitative Approaches. London: Sage Publications.

 

de Beer, Marlene. (27-30 June 2001).

The role of international organisations in developing social cohesion through education: Initial experiences & reflections. Presentation at the 5th International Conference of the Ethnic Studies Network: from Violence to Politics, at the INCORE Centre, London/derry, University of Ulster, Northern Ireland.

 

___. (22-24 July 2002a).

Transpersonal Realities & New Leadership in Developing Social Cohesion Through Education: A South African Perspective. Paper presented at the First International Conference on Organisational Spirituality. Theme: "Living Spirit: New Dimensions in Work and Learning", University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.

 

___. (21 September. 2002b).

In Search of a Heart for the Complicated Beast and His Feastings: International Organisations Intervention in Developing Social Cohesion Through Education - Using Poetry in Qualitative Education Research at the 15th Annual Conference Women's Studies: Beyond Sex and Gender? Centre for Women's Studies, Queen's University, Belfast.

 

___. (18 October 2002c).

Spirituality, Sustainability and Education. Presentation for the Bahá'i Society at the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland.

 

___. (10-12 April 2003a).

Education for Diversity: the Social Cohesion Challenge at the ESAI Annual Conference 2003; St. Mary's University College, Belfast, Northern Ireland.

 

___. (9-10 May 2003b).

The Rhetoric & Politics of Social Cohesion Discourses at the Fourth Essex Graduate Conference in Political Theory - 'Rhetoric and Politics', University of Essex, Colchester, UK.

 

___. (13 September 2003c).

Tango Romantica or Liasons Dangereuses?' Social Cohesion & Education - 'Simpler Than You Think, More Complex Than You Imagine' . Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Main Conference, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Education-line: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00003137.htm

 

___. (2004a).

Echoes of a Wounded African Healer. Journal of Critical Inquiry into Curriculum & Instruction, 5(2), 20-27.

 

___. (2004b).

Beastly Feast, disClosure (a journal of social theory) (Issue theme: "Pangaea"), 13, forthcoming. http://www.uky.edu/AS/SocTheo/DisClosure/disclose.htm

 

Dillbeck, Susan Levin. & Dillbeck, Michael C. (1987).

Consciousness-Based Education: Principles, Practice, and Research. Modern Science and Vedic Science, 1(4): 383--431. http://www.mum.edu/ed_dept/papers/cbeppr_all.html

 

Foucault, Michel (1974).

The order of things: An archaeology of the human sciences. London: Tavistock.

 

Grant, James D. (1998).

A new educational paradigm for the new millennium -- Consciousness-based education. Futures, 30(7), 717-724.

 

Grant, James D. (1999).

Consciousness-Based Education: A Future of Higher Education in the New Millennium. University in Transformation: Global Perspectives on the Futures of the University, published by Greenwood Publishing Group. http://www.mum.edu/ed_dept/papers/cbe_grant.html (1 December 2001).

 

Grant, J.D., & Jones, Christopher H.. (1998).

The Significance of Pure Consciousness for Education. Modern Science Vedic Science, 8(1), http://www.mum.edu/ed_dept/papers/sigofpc_frm.html

 

Green, Andy. & Preston, John. (2001).

Education and Social Cohesion: Recentering the Debate. Peabody Journal of Education, 76(3&4), 247-284.

 

Gutek, Gerald L. (2003).

Froebel, Friedrich (1782-1852) in Guthrie, James W. (Ed). Encyclopedia of Education (second Ed.) Volume 3 (pp.903-906).

 

Hansen, Joshi Ulcca. (10 September 2003).

Holistic Education within the Sate School System in England. Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Student Conference, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh.

 

Heydt, J. M. (1999).

Education for democratic citizenship and social cohesion Strasbourg, November 1999. http://culture.coe.fr/postsummit/citizenship/concepts/erap99_60.htm (15 November 2000).

 

Heyneman, Stephen P. (2000).

From the Party/State to Multiethnic Democracy: Education and Social Cohesion in Europe and Central Asia. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 22(2), 173-191.

 

___. (2003).

Education and Social Cohesion in Guthrie, James W. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Education. New York: Macmillan.

 

Heyneman, Stephen P. & Todoric-Bebic, Sonja. (2000).

A Renewed sense for the purposes of schooling: the challenges of education in Asia, Africa, Latin America, Europe and Central Asia. Prospects, XXX(2), June, 145-166.

 

Jeannotte, Sharon (2000).

Tango Romantica or Liasons Dangereuses? Cultural Policies and Social Cohesion: Perspectives from Canadian Research. Cultural Policy 7(1), 97-113.

 

Jeannotte, Sharon., Stanley, Dick., Pendakur, Ravi., Jamieson, Bruce., Williams, Maureen and Aizlewood, Amanda. (2002).

Bying in or Dropping Out: The Public Policy Implications of Social Cohesion Research. SRA-631-e. Ottawa: Canadian Policy Research Network.

 

Jenson, Jane. (1998).

Mapping social cohesion: The state of Canadian research. Canadian Policy Research Networks Study No. F-03. Ottawa: Canadian Policy Research Network.

 

Jenson, Jane. (2002).

Identifying the Links: Social Cohesion and Culture in Making Connections: Culture and Social Cohesion in the New Millennium. Canadian Journal of Communications, 27(2, 3), http://www.cjc-online.ca/title.php3?page=5&journal_id=43

 

Maharishi University Of Management. (1997).

Summary of Scientific Research on the Transcendental Meditation Programme Relevant to Education. http://www.mum.edu/ed_dept/papers/ressum_frm.html

 

McNay, Lois. (1992).

Foucault and Feminism: Power, Gender and the Self. Oxford: Polity Press.

 

Odora Hoppers, Catherine A. (1997).

Public Policy Dialogue: Its role in the Policy Process. Johannesburg: Centre for Education Policy Development (CEPD).

 

Odora Hoppers, Catherine A. (1998).

Structural violence as a Constraint to African Policy Formation in the 1990s: Repositioning Education in international relations. Stockholm: Institute of International Education, University of Stockholm.

 

Orsine, F. (1999).

Meet me at the saffron gates. Quality Life. October-November, 40-42.

 

Ramose, Mogobe B. (2002).

African philosophy through UBUNTU. Zimbabwe: Mond Books.

 

Schmidt-Wilk, J., Heaton, D. P., and Steingard. D. (2000).

Higher Education for Higher Consciousness: Maharishi University of Management as a Model for Spirituality in Management Education. Journal of Management Education, Special Issue on Spirituality in Contemporary Work: Its Place, Space, and Role in Management Education, 24(5), 580-611.

 

Schuyt, Kees. (1997).

Sociale cohesie en sociaal beleid: Drie publiekscolleges in de Balie door Kees Schuyt. (Social cohesion and Social Policy: Three Public Lecturers in the Balie by Kees Schuyt) Amsterdam: De Balie.

 

Sevenhuijsen, Selma. (1999).

Too good to be true? Feminist considerations about trust and social cohesion. Focaal, 34, 207-222.

 

Shi-Xu. (2001).

Critical Pedagogy and Intercultural Communication: creating discourses of diversity, equality, common goals and rational-moral motivation. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 22(3), 279-293.

 

Seldon, Timothy David. (2003).

Montessori, Maria (1970-1952) in Guthrie, James W. (Ed). Encyclopedia of Education (second Ed.) Volume 5 (pp.1675-1680).

 

Solutions to School Violence. (2001).

Inoculate Schools Against Violence Through Reducing Stress and Frustration. Research on the Transcendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Sidhi programmemes. http://www.schoolpeace.org/research.html (5 December 2001).

 

Smuts, Jan Christiaan. (1926).

Holism and Evolution. London: MacMillan.

 

Stanley, Dick. (2002).

What Do We Know about Social Cohesion: The Research Perspective of the Federal Government's Social Cohesion Research Network. SRA-658. Ottawa: Canadian Policy Research Network.

 

Suettmann, M. (2002).

School Violence. Natural Law email discussion list <NaturalLaw@lists.txinfinet.com>( UK Forum on Maharishi Yogi's consciousness activities and interpretations on world affairs)(sent 21 May 2002, GesundeGesellschaft@web.de).

 

UN Research Institute for Social Development (1995).

http://www.unrisd.org/engindex/publ/list/bp/bp1/bp01-02.htm (7 December 2000).

 

Williams, Maureen K. (2001).

Simpler Than You Think, More Complex Than You Imagine: Progress in Social Cohesion Research. SRA-624. Ottawa: Canadian Policy Research Network.

 

Yin, Robert K. (1991).

Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Applied Social Research Methods Series - Volume 5. London: Sage Publications.

Annex 1: References of Scientifically verified International studies on TM

Hagelin, J.S., Rainforth, M.V., Orme-Johnson, D.W., Cavanaugh, K.L., Alexander,C.N., Shatkin, S.F., Davies, J.L., Hughes, A.O and Ross, E. (1999). Effects of group practice of the Transcendental Meditation Programme on preventing violent crime in Washington, D.C.: Results of the National Demonstration Project, June-July. Social Indicators Research. 47(2), 153-201.

Consciousness-Based Education Delivers the Missing Element in Education -- Development of Full Potential of Consciousness. http://www.MOU.org/consciousness_ed/cbe.html

Summary of Scientific Research on the Transcendental Meditation Program Relevant to Education. http://www.MOU.org/research/EducSum1.html

Scientific Research on Transcendental Meditation and TM-SADHI Programs. http://www.tm.org/research/home.html

Reducing Crime in Society and Creating World Peace. http://www.tm.org/book/chap_7.html

Questions and Answers on the Scientific Research. http://www.tm.org/book/append_a.html

Selected References on the Scientific Research on Transcendental Meditation. http://www.tm.org/book/append_b.html

Orme-Johnson, D.W., Alexander,C.N., Davies, J.L. (1990). The Effects of the Maharishi Technology of the United Field: Reply to a Methodological Critique. Journal of Conflict Resolution. 34(4), 756-768.

Orme-Johnson, D.W., Alexander,C.N., Davies, J.L., Chandler, H.M. & Larimore, W.E. (1988). International Peace Project in the Middle East: The effects of the Maharishi Technology of the United Field. Journal of Conflict Resolution. 32(4),776-812.

Dillbeck, M.C., Cavanaugh, K.L., Glenn, T., Orme-Johnson, D.W. & Mittlefehldt, V. (1988). Test of a Field Model of Consciousness and Social Change: The Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program and Decreased Urban Crime. The Journal of Mind and Behavior. 9(4), 457-486.

Bleick, C.R. & Abrams. A.I. (1987). The Transcendental Meditation Program and Criminal Recidivism in California. Journal of Criminal Justice. 15, 211-230.

Dillbeck, M.C., Cavanaugh, K.L., Glenn, T., Orme-Johnson, D.W. & Mittlefehldt, V. 1987). Consciousness as a Field: The Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program and Changes in Social Indicators. The Journal of Mind and Behavior. 8(1), 67-104.

Alexander, C.N. (1982). Ego development, personality and behavioral change in inmates practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique or participating in other programs: a cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Ph.D. Harvard University.

Abrams, A.I. & Siegel, L.M. (1978). The Transcendental Meditation Program and Rehabilitation at Folsom State Prison: a cross-validation study. Criminal Justice and Behavior. 5(1), 3-20.

Shecter, H.W. (1977). A psychological investigation into the source of the effect of the transcendental meditation technique. Ph.D. York University (Canada).

Childs, J.P. (1973). The use of Transcendental Meditation as therapy with Juvenile Offenders. Ed.D. University of Tennessee.

Nidich, S. Seeman, W. & Dreskin, T. (1973). Influence of Transcendental Meditation: a replication. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 20(6), 565-566.

[Back]

Endnotes

Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and cannot necessarily be attributed to the UNESCO Centre or the University of Ulster.

[1]  Jan Christiaan Smuts, born 1870, of Boer (Afrikaner) 'stock', though a British subject by birth, grew up in South Africa and was educated at Victoria College (at Stellenbosch) and at Cambridge in England, where he won highest honors in law. During the Boer War, he served a term as Prime Minister of his country. After public duty he wrote Holism and Evolution (1926): A classic work that introduced the concept of "holism" and the holistic approach to life. Yet his days on the world stage were not over; re-elected as Prime Minister, he presided over a country now struggling with a new concept called apartheid that forced separation of blacks and whites. He opposed this policy and stood his ground under relentless attack. Though forced from office in 1948, he retired once more to private life and died in 1950. No other South African Prime Minister would oppose apartheid until Nelson Mandela. [Back]

[2]  The above comments are also integrated from:
Bussey, Marcus, A Trans-Disciplinary Approach
http://nhe.gurukul.edu/trans.html

Bussey, Marcus, Neo-Humanist Philosophy;
Bussey, Marcus, Homo Tantricus: Tantra as an Episteme for Future Generations
http://www.gurukul.edu/pubs_journal_homotantricus.php
http://nhe.gurukul.edu/education.html
http://nhe.gurukul.edu/what.html
http://nhe.gurukul.edu/arts.html
http://www.kakapu.net/kids/neohumanism.htm
http://nhe.gurukul.edu/values.html
http://nhe.gurukul.edu/applied.htm
http://nhe.gurukul.edu/magiccircle.html [Back]

[3]  Also see:
http://www.mum.edu/ed_dept/research.html
http://www.mum.edu/students/tm.html
http://www.mum.edu/students/cbased.html
http://www.mum.edu/ed_dept/papers/ressum_frm.html
http://www.worldpeaceendowment.org/invincibility/invincibility12.html ;

Solutions to School Violence:
http://www.schoolpeace.org/research.html [Back]

[4]  The arms deal is estimated to be worth R50 billion. The period over which it will be paid is approximately 20 years, with the bulk of payment being made between now and 2011. A very approximate and modest estimate of the annual cost of the deal over the next few years is therefore R2,5 billion. http://www.uct.ac.za/org/agi/newslet/vol9/arms.htm - The Arms deal and HIV/Aids by Nathan Geffen Volume 9, December 2001. [Back]

Academic Exchange Extra invites reader responses to any writings in this issue--especially articles advancing the scholarly debate of issues raised.

Copyright © Academic Exchange - EXTRA
- Web Editor

------------------------------  Page Citation Reference: AE-Extra. Available Online. [URL: < >. Created: 23 March 2004. Updated: 1 April 2004. Accessed: ]