In Defense of Adventure-Based Education and Active Learning Opportunities

Jim Cain, Ph.D.
Teamwork & Teamplay
http://www.teamworkandteamplay.com [Opens in a new window]

[** A longer version of this article first appeared as a chapter in the 2003 Kendall / Hunt Publication Developing Challenge Course Programs for Schools, edited by Jeff Steffens and Scott Wurdinger]

For 31 years now I've been active in the field of adventure-based learning (and along with it the many other names that this style of education includes, such as: experiential learning, experience-based training, teambuilding, leadership development, ropes and challenge courses, and most recently, active learning). During this time, there has been a flow of ideas, grass root programs, curriculum development, research and general discussion that has allowed this field to mature and proliferate. Adventure-based learning now spans the extremes from collaborative and cooperative games played by children on the school playground and at summer camps, to experiences that test the leadership principles and alter the culture of international corporations in their boardrooms.

Consider this a comprehensive list of resources, case studies, and references that are sure to build a case for the value of adventure-based learning, in even a traditional classroom setting. Within the context of this paper, and beyond, for that matter, adventure-based learning incorporates the best of the field. This includes rope courses, climbing walls, ground level teambuilding initiatives, active games, and other experiential learning activities that are presented by an experienced facilitator. While significant learning often occurs during these activities, it is the unique combination of activity and active discussion at the completion of the activity that defines adventure-based learning.

"I love having my students engage in adventure-based learning opportunities. The day we spend at the challenge course is always one of the most beneficial and enjoyable days of the school year. But, my principal is going to evaluate my performance as a teacher on my student's test scores on standardized tests at the end of the year. With so many other 'essential' lessons taking my time, I haven't been able to justify the adventure-based component, even though I know it is ultimately valuable for my students and myself."

For many educators, a discussion on the merits of adventure-based education begins with something like the above commentary. An expression of the value of adventure-based learning, and yet an acknowledgment of the difficulty in persuading the decision makers within a learning institution of this value, or even the validity of using adventure-based and active learning techniques for instructing a traditional curriculum, or supplementing one.

My opinion of this all too common occurrence comes from my background in engineering. As a mechanical engineer, if you were to ask me a question that involved a concept I learned during my college years, I would no doubt return to my college textbooks, retrace my learning, and attempt to solve the problem. In the years since my college days, there have certainly been changes in technology, newer textbooks, different concepts and conclusions, and yet, I would be most comfortable with those texts that were a part of my initial learning process--texts that are now at least 20 years old. In a similar way, I believe that when the decision makers in our present learning institutions are confronted with limited resources they attempt to solve problems in the manner in which they first experienced them during their years of higher education. For many of these decision makers, there was no active learning, no adventure-based education, and, for that matter, very little of what John Dewey recognized as the value of 'experience' in their formal education years. No multiple intelligence theories, no character education in the schools, no 'alternatives' to a 'standard' education even for those students that were unreachable by the present system. As a result, when these policy and decision makers are confronted with a problematic educational situation, they are typically unfamiliar with the merits of using adventure-based education, active learning opportunities, or any form of experiential education.

I was encouraged at first that there might still be hope for adventure-based learning. All that needed to happen was to graduate a generation of teachers that had experienced adventure-based learning in their formative college years, have them teach, and finally find themselves in the role of decision maker in their institution. Then, I thought, they will utilize those college concepts that have demonstrated their value when tough decisions need to be made. Alas, the number of formal teachers that are presently equipped with an awareness of adventure-based education as part of their college education are surprisingly few. It is more likely that 'informal educators,' such as recreation and leisure study majors, are to be found in adventure-based learning classes than many primary or secondary education teachers, and even less graduate level educational administrators, principals and superintendents.

The result, unfortunately, is that it is sometimes extremely difficult for an educator to convince the decision maker in their institution of the utility, validity, and value of incorporating adventure-based learning into their curriculum. What is needed, then, is a convincing argument with specific documentation to illustrate the value of an education that includes challenge and adventure-based learning.

In the following paragraphs, documentation from a variety of sources is presented to illustrate the value of adventure-based learning. For those seeking to influence the policy and decision makers within their own institutions, or for those engaged in grant writing, curriculum design, alternative educational practices, or simply interested in finding another method of reaching students, I hope this material brings the credibility needed when utilizing adventure-based activities as a means of delivering curriculum, unlocking the learning process, and ultimately reaching those students educators so desperately wish to reach.

A Historical Perspective on Experiential Education and Active Learning

"I believe that the school is primarily a social institution. Education being a social process, the school is simply that form of community life in which all those agencies are concentrated that will be most effective in bringing the child to share in the inherited resources of the race, and to use his own powers for social ends."

John Dewey[Note 1]

"It is a commonplace that everyone talks about Dewey and no one reads him."

Reginald D. Archambault [Note 2]

While John Dewey has long been called the "Father of Experiential Education," his classic 1938 text, Education as Experience, hints at only the tip of the adventure-based iceberg. For more than 50 years following this work, other authors have tried to capture the potential educational benefit of utilizing active learning but have often fallen short because of one essential element--the ability to utilize adventure-based learning within the standard curriculum.

Modern texts, such as Project Adventure's Adventures in the Classroom, and Outward Bound's Into the Classroom, are some of the first texts to propose that adventure-based learning can extend beyond the classic teamwork scenario and into the classroom itself. For this reason, much of what is presented here will be a look at the present and the future, rather than a classic look at the past. However, for those interested in the classic writings of Dewey, Piaget and Lewin, David Kolb's work Experiential Learning - Experience as the Source of Learning and Development, is recommended reading.

Some Hard Numbers

While it can be difficult finding hard numbers to validate adventure-based learning there is one source of information that is available in nearly all of the 50 states and directly provides information on risk management and safety issues that any administrator may want to know. The State Department of Health, in most states, collects and retains information related to the reportable accidents, injuries or health related incidents encountered in summer camp programs, including those of adventure-based and challenge course related accidents. The New York State Health Department's summary of all reported incidents for the year 2000, for example, includes not only camper sustained injuries and illnesses but also staff related incidents as well.

With specific regard to challenge course programs, here are two illustrative highlights from the year 2000 New York State summary:

Of the 1051 reported injuries, a total of 10 occurred on challenge courses. This number ranks 20th on the list, below such common camp activities as hiking, swimming, sports, sleeping and eating.

From a risk management perspective, for the year 2000 data, a camper was:

• 27 times more often injured in a sports program than on the challenge course
• 13 times more often injured in organized games than on the challenge course
• 6 times more often injured on playground equipment than on the challenge course
• 2 times more often injured simply playing than on the challenge course

From an activity vs. wellness assessment of the above data, challenge courses typically sustain higher levels of participant safety than many other common sports and games. This level is most often attributed to the frequent inspection of challenge course elements, the training required for facilitators, and the supervision level of the challenge course program in general. Simply stated, challenge course programs have statistically fewer injuries than many community athletic programs. This type of hard data can be valuable when trying to convince decision makers with limited knowledge of the actual and perceived risks of a challenge course.

Risk management is often a contributing factor in the decision making process whether to allow students to participate. As shown here, the typical rope course program is statistically less risky than many standard and, unfortunately, less supervised playground and camp activities.

The Best Documentation

A former faculty member of the University of New Hampshire and, most recently, of Prescott College, Dan Garvey is possibly one of the most respected experiential educators in the United States. No doubt, if asked to defend the validity of experiential education and adventure-based learning in court, Dan Garvey would make an excellent expert witness. When asked about the ultimate article validating adventure-based learning, Garvey recommended: "Adventure Education and Outward Bound: Out-of-Class Experiences That Make a Lasting Difference," John Hattie, H. W. Marsh, James T. Neill, and Garry E. Richards, Review of Educational Research, Spring 1997, Volume 67, Number 1, pages 43-87. This article also contains an extensive bibliography with additional professional journal articles, and most importantly, some serious statistical information related to the validity of adventure-based learning, self-concept growth, skill building, and self-esteem.

Resources from the Internet

There are a variety of keywords which make searching the world wide web a bit easier when it comes to adventure-based learning. Try using some of the following through a search engine: outdoor training, group work, teamwork, adventure-based, experiential learning, active learning, whole brain learning, challenge courses, leadership, experience-based training, and team building.

One of the most popular public forums with a focus on adventure-based learning and challenge courses is the "ROPES" listserve. This listserve typically covers topics ranging from where to find a specific type or brand of harness, helmet or challenge course hardware, to facilitation, grant writing and program planning. To subscribe to the ROPES listserve, send the following to ropes-lserv@literati.com: Subscribe your-email-address. For example: Subscribe roger@myhighschool.edu.

Additional websites of interest to adventure-based educators include:

The Three Things That All Groups Need

Based on the collected works of conventional wisdom and business gurus of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, there seems to be three underlying components that all groups require to perform at their highest levels. This is true of corporations and institutions of all kinds, including educational institutions. It is also true for both adult and youth populations. These three components include:

1. A clearly identified, articulated and worthy task
2. The opportunity for growth, advancement and building new skills
3. The opportunity to create and maintain relationships with other members of the group, (sometimes referred to as the 'social capital' of the organization).

While traditional learning environments typically provide the first two components, it takes specific planning to create the setting, opportunity, and social climate necessary to promote the development, growth and maintenance of relationships within the group. From a corporate perspective, this third component is actually one recognized by most management programs, but more often disregarded. In the book, Great Writings in Management & Organization Behavior, edited by Louis Boone, this concept is boldly confronted in a chapter largely related to Maslow's hierarchy of human needs as they relate to the corporate sector. It is identified that managers may, in fact, fear the relational development within the group. In order to counteract this disregard for the social and relational component necessary for the complete development of a group, specific attention needs to be given to the planning and delivery of training, staff development, and group learning opportunities as well as maintenance of the social capital of the group.

"Task, growth and relationships are the three critical components to the organizational 'apple pie.' If you like the taste of my organization's pie, you might want to write down the recipe. If you don't happen to like the taste of your current organizational pie, you might want to look at the quality of your ingredients, or the amount of each you are adding to the mix."

Jim Cain [Note 3]

Adventure-based learning programs traditionally have been group oriented programs. There is a significant amount of preparation and attention to the needs of the group, with abundant safeguards for each member of the group, and the opportunity for each member of the group's voice to be heard. Here the social and relational components described above are not merely allowed, they are a critically integrated part of the program.

The Millennial Generation

"Come the Fourth Turning, national survival will require a level of public teamwork and self-sacrifice far higher than Americans now provide."

William Strauss and Neil Howe [Note 4]

In their book, The Fourth Turning, authors Strauss and Howe mention that one of the key necessities of the millennial generation is to learn to work in teams. In short, the millennial generation needs exposure to exactly the style of teamwork, collaboration and group skills provided in many adventure-based learning experiences. You can find more information relating the cycles of American history to our youth and our future destiny at www.fourthturning.com.

A Need for the Skills of an Adventure-based Educator

The following story was shared by Mike King, adventure director of Berry College in Georgia:

One of the students working as a challenge course facilitator for King was majoring in computer science. During his senior year, the opportunity came for on-campus interviews with prospective companies. This particular student academically ranked near the bottom of his class, and yet received one of the highest financial offers, not for his computer science skills, but for his ability to create community, unity, and teamwork. According to King, this particular company expected to hire several hundred computer programmers and needed someone to create a sense of unity and teamwork. Beyond the normal sense of task or even growth opportunities, this company recognized the need for creating and maintaining relationships in the workplace and was glad to hire a recent graduate with adequate knowledge of the technical portion of the job but superior knowledge of the relationship component.

The Brain Gym

"Movement is the door to learning."

 Dr. Paul Dennison [Note 5]

For adventure-based educators, the challenge to connect the Brain Gym ideology with active learning concepts is not a difficult one. The standard classification of 'ice-breakers,' 'energizers' and 'de-inhibitizers' are specifically intended to provide movement and prepare the individual and the group for the learning experience at hand. For this same reason, it is important for administrators to understand that adventure-based education programs are not simply 'students playing and climbing on ropes in the trees.' The careful sequencing of activities, the needs assessment developed prior to the program, the processing, debriefing and reviewing of experiential activities, all relates to the learning potential. If movement truly is the door to learning, as Dr. Dennison states, then adventure-based educational programs have a door the size of the Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

For more information on this topic, use a keyword search of 'active learning,' 'brain gym,' or 'movement and education.' Also read, Smart Moves - Why learning is not all in your head, Carla Hannaford, 1995, Great Oceans Publishers, Arlington, VA USA ISBN 0-915556-27-8

The Walkertown Project

Adventure-based educators love challenge by nature, and the thought of creating an adventure-based program for middle school students, delivered by middle school students, is obviously interesting. In 1992, Clare Marie Hannon, a 4-H Youth Development Specialist in North Carolina, worked collaboratively with a creative middle school teacher to design a peer facilitation model for her seventh grade class. The teacher applied for and received a small incentive grant to train a group of students to provide teambuilding activities for their peers. The focus of the grant was for both student facilitators and the peers they taught to improve in the following life skills: communications, problem solving, decision making, goal setting, planning, relationship building, responsibility, leadership, trust, teambuilding and cooperation as part of the school improvement plan.

Sixteen students were selected from a pool of applicants and received three days of training in life-skills, initiative activities, low ropes activities, facilitation skills and debriefing skills. The design of the program was for students working in pairs to lead a group of 15 seventh grade students in teambuilding activities for 90 minutes each week for 10 weeks. A student videographer was also selected and trained.

Facilitators committed to spend three days a week after school preparing for and debriefing the sessions. Each week, the team met on Monday to review and debrief the previous week's video, celebrating successes and identify behaviors that were giving them problems in their groups. On Tuesday, the team met to discuss what skills and activities to focus on next, based on the previous weeks experience and their skill development goals. Wednesday they prepared materials for the session that week. Sessions took place Friday on the school site. The program culminated with a trip to a low and high ropes course where the student facilitators co-facilitated their peers with the help of site staff.

The level of empathy and understanding exhibited by the student facilitators was truly impressive. Midway through the program, during a debriefing session after school, there was an animated discussion about a student that had been difficult and refused to participate. The student facilitators were able to articulate the fears and insecurities that were probably causing the behavior and developed a plan for involving the student that would be less intimidating. After this particularly challenging session and analysis, one young facilitator remarked, "You know what the problem with this program is? I'll never be able to look at someone and just hate them for the way they act, without asking myself, 'what makes them act that way' . . . and how can I make it easier for them!"

I would estimate, based upon Benjamin Bloom's hierarchy of learning, that this student was functioning near the top of Bloom's hierarchy. While it is difficult to assess whether this same level of learning could have been accomplished in a more traditional classroom setting, it is obvious that this student got the message.

A Case Study - Evolution of Adventure Education at the Betsy Jeff Penn 4-H Center in North Carolina

In 1988, the Betsy-Jeff Penn 4-H summer camp in central North Carolina took on a bold new mission: to extend their two month long summer camp program season into a year round program designed in collaboration with surrounding school systems. The goal was to create a program that would support the formal education curriculum and serve as a model for integrated learning.

The first step to creating a program of this type was to identify teachers and administrators in the surrounding school systems that were well aware of the needs within the region. After a number of meetings with curriculum coordinators, teachers, and principals, it was determined that there was a need for hands-on science and environmental education experiences that utilized multidisciplinary learning. Administrators with the city school system recognized that there were a significant number of students who needed an active approach to learning in order to be successful. Access to existing equipment and resources for experimenting and active learning was limited and additional equipment was expensive. Administrators recognized the value in identifying a location where students could come and share equipment (especially a location that was willing to find the funding to purchase the necessary equipment).

As a side note, those individuals involved in the program design process from the 4-H Center would have been delighted to have embarked into an adventure-based challenge program for the schools at this point. It would have been easy to justify to school representatives the wonderful skills that adventure education afforded. Teambuilding and adventure-based programming was already an area for which resources existed and a program of significant value was established. But at the start of this particular collaboration, school officials didn't request this style of program and instead focused on the formal curriculum as the ideal starting point.

With this mandate, funding was applied for and received, a curriculum was developed, learning experiences were designed, and, in February of 1989, experts in the field of hands-on learning in science and the environment were brought together to provide an orientation training for teachers and administrators. The primary focus of the training was to help teachers gain the skills to design learning experiences, in and out of the classroom, that focused on educational outcomes and included hands on learning, science and environmental concepts. We shared our program and identified how it tied to the standardized curriculum but also provided a wide variety of other learning experiences for hands on science and environmental education.

A three-day residential learning experience for students was launched in April. One component of these learning experiences was a 90-minute class that used initiative and low rope elements to teach students the skills to work together to solve environmental problems. A series of traditional initiatives and low ropes elements were front loaded with environmental issue related metaphors and then debriefed for both the standard interpersonal skills and for the broader environmental context. The response from teachers was immediate and amazing, as suggested by the following comments:

"I'm going to put the steps to the problem solving process up on my wall so my students use them in the classroom."
" I had no idea how to get that across to them and now they've got it."
"I'd have never thought of that solution."
" These kids are more creative than I am!"
"This is what my students need to learn."
"The rest is nice, but this is critical."
"Next year, can we get a double session of the Cooperation Adventure?"
"These activities teach the skills my students lack and that keep them from learning effectively in the classroom."

And, of course, the answer to this final comment was a resounding "yes!" By the second year, the environmental education program offered three hour blocks for initiatives and ropes course activities, and teachers were beginning to say, "How about half our time in environmental education and half our time on cooperation adventures?"

By the fall of 1990, the interest and understanding of the values of adventure/challenge education existed to the point where a stand alone program was developed that used initiatives, low ropes, high ropes and simulations to teach life-skills to school groups. Once again, funding was secured, this time for an extended low and high ropes course, equipment, marketing, teacher training and curriculum design. Once again, an extensive needs assessment with teachers, administrators and curriculum coordinators was conducted to learn what they saw as important to the formal classroom.

One of the most critical parts of this process is learning the language that makes sense to the decision makers within the school systems. 4-H staff members found that they could talk until they were blue in the face about the value of adventure-based learning, and while school personnel would politely agree with them about the value of these experiences, they didn't have time for that in their curriculum. Luckily, the standardized curriculum put high value on reinforcing life-skills, like problem solving, listening, communicating, generating alternatives and decision making. These skills created the necessary opportunity. With this skill set, the 4-H staff members and the school administrators shared a common language and a common set of values.

By the fall of 1991, the "Soaring Thru Spaces" program was designed and ready to explore:

Inner Spaces -

Knowing myself, setting goals, overcoming fears, coping with change and decision making

Shared Spaces -

Group dynamics, problem solving, communication, cooperation, teamwork, and leadership

Outer Spaces -

Creating new options, facing the unknown, envisioning a positive future, creative thinking, and applying what we have learned to new situations.

Again, this program began by offering teachers a series of learning experiences that allowed them to understand the approach and provided them with training in integrating the learning experiences back into the classroom. This was especially important with adventure programs, since there is an element of perceived risk that teachers and administrators need to experience and understand and be able to rationalize to concerned parents. Programs were offered in one, two and three day formats with a clear communication of what could be taught in each time frame. Schools that had previously participated in the environmental education program sometimes switched to the Soaring Thru Spaces Program. More often, they chose to add the new program at a different grade. An added advantage of the development of the Soaring Thru Spaces Program was that it tended to be a program teachers used in the fall to teach life skills students could use all year long in the classroom. Environmental Education was in higher demand in the spring as a way of integrating the learning experiences earlier in the school year. Although both programs were offered throughout the school year, they complemented each other well. Currently, the programs serve relatively equal audiences, totaling 7,000 students a year. For Betsy-Jeff Penn, that equals capacity. It should be noted that this 4-H Center was the first resident facility to offer either of these programs in the state of North Carolina. Interest created in part by the Center's programs spun off a number of similar programs in a variety of locations in the state.

Some of the key points in successfully involving schools in adventure/challenge course experiences include:

• Take time to understand the standardized curriculum and what teachers are required to do.
• Develop key relationships with school teachers and administrators during the design process, then let school teachers and administrators tell you what they need.
• Design programs based on schools articulated needs that reflected their language and their outcomes (for instance, life skills may not be your buzzword, it could be school to work skills or character education).
• Introduce new ideas in small pieces so teachers and administrators can see their value to formal education and guide you in how to use them effectively for school outcomes
• Stay close to your teachers and they'll tell you where the program needs to grow next.
• Give teachers a chance to experience the program before they attend with their students, so they feel knowledgeable.
• Teach teachers how to integrate what students learn in an adventure program back into the classroom, so it is not a stand-alone experience.

Multiple Intelligences

The work of Martin Gardner, Thomas Armstrong and others has suggested that there are a variety of styles by which individuals come to grasp information, and, in fact, learn. At present, eight styles or talents have been identified, including: Logical Mathematical, Bodily Kinesthetic, Visual Spatial, Linguistic, Musical, Interpersonal - Knowledge of Others, Intrapersonal - Knowledge of Self and Natural Environmental. For many educators, investigating these eight styles, although interesting, is difficult given a standardized curriculum, and impossible given the time provided to explore such techniques. Luckily, adventure-based learning is easily accessible to all of these styles, as can be seen from the following examples:

Here are some suggested readings in the field of multiple intelligence:

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, Thomas Armstrong, 2000, ASCD Alexandria, Virginia USA ISBN 0-87120-376-6 This is an excellent 'template' for designing your own curriculum with multiple possibilities for learning in different ways.

In Their Own Way - Discovering and Encouraging Your Child's Multiple Intelligences, Thomas Armstrong, 2000, Jeremy Tarcher/Putnam Publishing, New York, NY USA ISBN 1-58542-051-4

Suggested Reading

In the past few years, I've had the opportunity to write two adventure-based teambuilding books, and during the research for these books, I discovered quite a few articles, books and publications on the significance of adventure-based learning techniques. I thought I would share these articles and resources with you for two reasons. First, we live in a world where what we do and how we perform is constantly evaluated and scrutinized. Few educational programs, leadership, and sport programs have the luxury of funding curriculums which do not produce the measurable and desirable results mandated in our present educational systems. It is my hope that a few of these resources may prove valuable to you as you attempt to justify or obtain academic credibility for utilizing adventure-based programs. Secondly, in the interest of sharing best practices, increasing the knowledge base and generally familiarizing both faculty and administration about adventure and experienced-based learning, I hope these references will find their way onto your desks and bulletin boards and into your lesson plans and curriculum projects.

I've managed to place some of the top references in this article with five significant resources first. More than 2000 can be found in the book, Teamwork & Teamplay, ISBN 0-7872-4532-1. Many significant articles on adventure-based education and learning can also be found in journals, periodicals, microfilms, magazines, books, websites and newspaper articles. This information can be located using search keywords such as: teamwork, teambuilding, outdoor education, ropes course, challenge education, adventure-based education, experiential education, active learning, whole brain learning, recreation, group work and outdoor training.

Basic Training

If you don't have the time or resources to manage the entire list, try these six resources first.

"Adventure Education and Outward Bound: Out-of-Class Experiences That Make a Lasting Difference." John Hattie, H. W. Marsh, James T. Neill, and Garry E. Richards, Review of Educational Research, Spring 1997, Volume 67, Number 1, pages 43-87. Recommended by Dan Garvey of Prescott College and includes even more resources and references.

"Strengthening Experiential Education within Your Institution - A Sourcebook by the National Society for Experiential Education." Jane C. Kendall, John S. Duley, Thomas C. Little, Jane S. Permaul, Sharon Rubin, 1986, Arlington, VA. (http://www.nsee.org/) An older but interesting text, filled with ideas about gathering support for experiential programs in your school.

The American Camping Association (ACA) now includes on their website research and information related to education and camping programs at the Camp Knowledge Center:

http://www.acacamps.org/knowledge/     http://www.acacamps.org/research/

The following texts can provide a historical perspective, excellent programming techniques, and a wide variety of activities and additional resources for adventure and experienced-based learning programs:

Adventure Programming, by John C. Miles and Simon Priest, 1999, Venture Publishing, Inc. State College, PA ISBN 1-892132-09-5.

Teamwork & Teamplay, by Jim Cain and Barry Jolliff, 1998, Kendall Hunt Publishers, Dubuque, IA ISBN 0-7872-4532-1

The Book on Raccoon Circles, by Jim Cain and Tom Smith, 2002, Learning Unlimited, Tulsa, OK, www.learningunlimited.com

Periodical and Journal Articles

Argyris, C.

"Teaching Smart People How To Learn," Harvard Business Review, May 1991, pages 99-109.

 

Bales, K.B.

"Experiential Learning: A Review and Annotated Bibliography," Journal of Cooperative Education, Volume 16, Fall 1979, pages 70-90.

 

Bennet, D.B.

"Four Steps to Evaluating Environmental Education Learning Experiences," Journal of Experiential Education, Volume 20, Number 2, 1988, pages 14-21.

 

Carver, R.

"Theory for Practice: A Framework for Thinking About Experiential Education," Journal of Experiential Education, Volume 19, Number 1, 1996, pages 8-13.

 

Clements, Christine, et. al.

"The Ins and Outs of Experiential Training," Training and Development, Volume 49, Number 2, February 1995, pages 52-56.

 

Cross, P.K.

"The Coming of Age of Experiential Education," National Society for Experiential Education Quarterly, Volume 19, Number 3, 1994, pages 22-24.

 

Evans, M.

"Experiential Learning in Higher Education: Peripheral or Central?" The CAEL Forum and News, Volume 17, Number 2, 1994, pages 31-34.

 

Ewert, Alan.

"Theoretical Foundations of Outdoor Adventure Activities," Outdoor Recreation Research Journal, Volume 2, 1987, pages 3-16.

 

Frant, R.D.

"Learning Through Outdoor Adventure Education," Teaching Exceptional Children, Volume 14, Number 4, February 1982, pages 146-151.

 

Froiland, Paul.

"Action Learning - Taming Real Problems in Real Time," Training, Volume 31, Number 1, January 1994, pages 27-34.

 

Gray, T. and Patterson, J.

"Effective Research into Experiential Education: A Critical Resource in its Own Right," Proceedings of the 22nd Annual AEE Conference, Austin, Texas, Nov 1994, pages138-145.

 

Hanna, Glenda.

"Overcoming Barriers to Implementing Outdoor and Environmental Education," Pathways, Volume 6, Number 1, December 1993, pages 24-28.

 

Herdman, Paul.

"Adventure in the Classroom," Journal of Experiential Education, Volume 17, Number 2, August 1994, pages 18-25.

 

Hollandsworth, J.G.

"A School-Based Outdoor Adventure Program," North Carolina Journal of Outdoor Education, Volume 2, Number 1, Fall 1980, pages 24-26.

 

Huberstone, Barbara and Lynch, Pip.

"Girls Concepts of Themselves and Their Experiences in Outdoor Education Programmes," Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership, Volume 8, Number 3, Fall 1991, pages 27-31.

 

Kesselheim, A.D.

"A Rationale for Outdoor Activity as Experiential Education: The Reason for Freezin'," paper presented to the Conference on Outdoor Pursuits in Higher Education, Boone, North Carolina, ERIC Document Number ED 148 530.

 

Metzger, Devon J.

"Practicing What We Preach: Involving Student Teachers in Their Own Learning," Action in Teacher Education, Volume 10, Number 4, Winter 1989, pages 15-18.

 

Miles, J.C.

"The Value of High Adventure Activities," Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, Volume 49, Number 4, April 1978, pages 27-28.

 

Ongena, J.

"Should our Schools Offer Adventure Education ?," Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Journal, May/June, 1984, pages 4-7.

 

Priest, Simon and Gass, Michael.

"Five Generations of Facilitated Learning From Adventure Experiences," Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Education, Volume 10, Number 3, 1995, pages 23-25.

 

Roland, Christopher; Summers, S.; Friedman, M.; Barton, G. and McCarthy, K.

"Creation of an Experiential Challenge Program", Therapeutic Recreation Journal, Vol 21, Number 2, 1987, pages 54-63.

 

Sills, Robert, et. al.

"When Teachers Are the Students," Vocational Education Journal, Volume 70, Number 2, February 1995, pages 24-29.

 

Sorohan, E.

"We Do: Therefore We Learn," Training & Development, Vol.47, No.10, 1993, page 55.

 

Sproul, Susan and Priest, Simon.

"The Ropes Course as an Educational Tool," Pathways: The Ontario Journal of Outdoor Education, Volume 4, Number 2, February 1992, pages 9-12.

 

Stahl, A.

"Bridging the Gap Between Research and Teacher Education," Journal of Education for Teaching, Volume 17, number 30, 1991, pages 293-299.

 

Stevens, Peggy Walker and Richards, Anthony.

"Changing Schools Through Experiential Education," March 1992, ERIC Digest EDO-RC-91-13.

 

Stutz, J.P. and Knapp, J.

"Experiential Learning: An Annotated Literature Guide," CAEL Project Report, ERIC Document Number ED 148 859.

 

Teaff, Joseph and Kablach, John.

"Psychological Benefits of Outdoor Adventure Activities," Journal of Experiential Education, Volume 10, Number 2, Summer 1987, pages 43-46.

 

Washbourn, P.

"Experiential Learning: Is Experience the Best Teacher?" Liberal Education, Volume 82, Number 3, 1996, pages 10-15.

 

West, June

"Team Building through Wilderness Activities in Eighth Grade Special Education," Conference Paper presented at Western States Communication Association Annual Meeting, February 1993, ERIC Document ED 371514.

 

Whittaker, Tom.

"Danger, Adventure Education and Schools," Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Volume 52, Number 9, November/December 1981, pages 53-54.

 

Wurdinger, Scott.

"Examining the Learning Process Used in Adventure Education," Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership, Volume 11, Number 3, Fall 1994, pages 25-27.

Books, Manuals, Texts and Guides

Armstrong, Thomas, 2000.

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom. ASCD Alexandria, VA ISBN 0-87120-376-6

 

Bacon, Stephen, 1983,

The Conscious Use of Metaphor in Outward Bound Colorado Outward Bound School, Denver, CO.

 

Boone, Louis E., (consulting ed.)1984.

 

Great Writings in Management & Organization Behavior, Macmillan Publishing, NY. The chapter related to Maslow's Hierarchy is entitled "The Human Side of the Enterprise," by Douglas M. McGregor

 

Cain, Jim, 2003.

Exploring the Five Stages of Group Formation Using Adventure-Based Activities, PDF document from the website at: http://www.teamworkandteamplay.com/activities.html History, Ritual, Ceremony and plenty of activities using only a simple piece of tubular webbing.

 

Cain, Jim and Barry Jolliff, 1998.

Teamwork & Teamplay, Kendall Hunt Publishers. ISBN 0-7872-4532-1. Some of the finest ground level portable challenge and adventure activities ever collected, with building instructions and the best resource lists ever compiled for this field.

 

Cain, Jim and Tom Smith, 2002.

The Book on Raccoon Circles, Learning Unlimited, Tulsa, OK, www.learningunlimited.com.

Cavert, Chris, Laurie Frank and Friends, 1999.

 

Games for Teachers - Classroom Activities that Promote Pro-Social Learning. Wood n Barnes Publishing Oklahoma City, OK. ISBN 1-885473-22-2

 

Ferguson, Gary, 1999.

Shouting At The Sky - Troubled Teens and the Promise of the Wild, St. Martin's Press, New York, NY ISBN 0-312-20008-0

 

Hannaford, Carla, 1995.

Smart Moves - Why learning is not all in your head, Great Oceans Publishers, Arlington, VA ISBN 0-915556-27-8

 

Jackson, Tom, 1993.

Activities That Teach. Red Rock Publishing, Cedar City, UT. ISBN 0-916095-49-5

 

Kohn, Alfie, 1986.

No Contest, The Case Against Competition - Why We Lose in Our Race To Win, Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6 A fascinating tutorial on our infatuation with competition and the opportunities that exist for cooperative adventures.

 

Kolb, David A., 1984.

Experiential Learning - Experience as the Source of Learning and Development, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. ISBN 0-13-295261-0 A classic text beginning with the work of Dewey, Lewin and Piaget, and moving forward to the present.

 

Knapp, Clifford E., 1996.

Just Beyond the Classroom Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools, Charleston, WV. ISBN 1-880785-15-3.

 

Miles, John C. and Simon Priest, 1999.

Adventure Programming, Venture Publishing, Inc. State College, PA. ISBN 1-892132-09-5.

 

Steffens, Jeff and Scott Wurdinger (eds.).

Developing Challenge Course Programs for Schools, Kendall / Hunt Publishers, Dubuque, IA

 

Strauss, William and Neil Howe, 1998.

The Fourth Turning, Broadway Books, New York, NY ISBN 0-767900-46-4

 

Sylwester, Robert, 1995.

A Celebration of Neurons - an Educator's Guide to the Human Brain. American Society of Curriculum Development , Alexandria, VA ISBN 0-87120-243-3

Reference Articles

Cohen, Sheldon, William Doyle, David Skoner, Bruce Rabin and Jack Gwaltney.

"Social Ties and Susceptibility to the Common Cold," Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Volume 277, Number 24, June 25, 1997, pages 1940-1944.

 

Eisenberg, Marla, Dianne Neumark-Sztainer and Cheryl Perry.

"Peer Harassment, School Connectedness, and Academic Achievement," The Journal of School Health, Volume 73, Number 8, October 2003, pages 311-316.

 

Klein, Jonathan.

"The National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health - Preliminary Results: Great Expectations," Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Volume 278, Number 10, September 10, 1997, pages 864-865.

 

Resnick, Michael, Peter Bearman, Robert Blum, et.al.

"Protecting Adolescents From Harm: Findings From the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health," Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Volume 278, Number 10, September 10, 1997, pages 823-832.

Conclusion

I would encourage each of you that read this article to find the above information at your local library, on-line, or at your local bookstore, and learn how to apply it in your pursuit of adventure-based and active learning.

Notes

[1] John Dewey, My Pedagogic Creed in John Dewey on Education - Selected Writings, page 430.  Edited by Reginald D. Archambault [Back to text]

[2] Reginald D. Archambault in John Dewey on Education - Selected Writings [Back to text]

[3] In Teamwork & Teamplay. [Back to text]

[4] Authors of The Fourth Turning. [Back to text]

[5] Author of Brain Gym. [Back to text]

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